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OCT  241949 


i 


THE  BUSINESS  HEN 

{THE  LATEST  HATCH) 


HE    RURAL    NEW-YORKER,     NEW    YORK 


%^\ 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2010  with  funding  from 

Boston  Library  Consortium  IVIember  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/businesshenthelaOOcoll 


THE   BUSINESS    HE 

(  THE  LATEST  HATCH ) 


HERBERT   W.   COLLINGWOOD 

EDITOR 


ASSISTED   BY 
PROF.  JAMES  E.  RICE  PROF.  F.  H.  STONEEURN 

PROF.  C.  A.  ROGERS  GEO.  A.  COSGROVE 

C.  S.  GREENE  A.  F.  HUNTER 

F.  Q.  WHITE  F.  T.  FINCH 

W.  W.  HIGGINS  JESSIE  F.  CLOSE 

AND  MANY  OTHERS 


^ 


PUBLISHED   BY 

THE    RURAL    PUBLISHING    COMPANY 
NEVv;-  YORK 


Copyright,  1910, 

By  The   Rural  Publishing  Co 

All  rights  reserved. 


FOREWORD 

There's  lots  of  folks  that  love  a  horse 

About  as  well  as  they  know  how. 
We  ain't  all  built  alike — of  course 

There's  them  that  do  just  love  a  cow 
Above  their  wives.     Some  folks  will  sleep 

When  hogs  or  horses  have  the  talk, 
But  start  a  word  edgeways  on  sheep 

And  see  the  way  their  tongues  will  walk. 
And  some  folks  sit  up  half  the  night 

To  paint  the  virtues  of  a  hog, 
And  I  know  folks  uncommon  bright, 

Who  rub  their  love  thick  on  a  dog. 
I  have,  ""s  now  I  do  rejoice 

No  quarrel  with  my  fellow  men, 
But  of  all  animals  my  choice 

Forever  is — the  Business  Hen. 
She  may  not  average  quite  so  strong 

As  sheep  or  hog  or  horse  or  cow. 
But  then  she  rolls  her  eggs  along 

And  pays  her  bills — that  suits  me  now. 
I'm  not  the  one  to  fight  or  knock 

When  others  claim  big  things — but  then 
My  mind  is  made  up  like  a  rock; 

You  can't  fool  me — I  love  the  hen. 


It  is  now  nearly  twenty  years  since  the  first  edition  of  "The 
Business  Hen"  was  pubhshed.  That  book  was  prepared  in  order  to 
answer  thousands  of  questions  which  were  asked  by  readers  of 
The  Rural  New-Yorker.  The  original  volume  was  crude  and 
imperfect,  yet  it  met  with  a  large  sale,  chiefly  because  it  was  practi- 
cal and  gave  the  everyday  experiences  of  working  hen  men.  The 
questions  continued  to  come,  and  we  found  as  the  years  went  by 
that  poultry  culture  was  developing  rapidly.  Many  new  ideas  were 
being  developed,  and  continued  years  of  experience  gave  a  vast 
amount  of  new  and  useful  information.  Six  years  ago  we  issued  a 
new  edition  of  the  book  which  was  called  "A  New  Brood."  With 
the  help  of  expert  poultry  teachers  and  successful  hen  men  the  book 
was  greatly  improved  in  every  way  and  many  thousands  were  sold. 
The  edition  was  soon  exhausted,  yet  though  many  new  poultry  books 
have  been  published,  there  were  still  calls  for  "The  Business  Hen." 
We  found  that  the  poultry  business  was  still  developing.  Study  and 
experience  were  constantly  changing  some  of  the  old  ideas,  and  the 
questions  still  continue  to  come.  We  have  therefore  prepared  this 
new  volume  which  we  call  "The  Latest  Hatch."  We  started  its 
preparation  with  the  ambition  to  get  together  the  most  useful  poultry 
book  in  the  language.  The  reader  must  decide  for  himself  how 
far  this  ambition  has  been  gratified.  We  have  read  all  the  poultry 
books  we  could  find.  Most  of  them  seemed  to  us  to  be  published 
for  certain  definite  objects — to  tell  some  "great  story,"  to  exploit 
some  personal  views  or  to  advertise  either  the  book  itself,  some 
breeder's  stock  or  some  manufactured  article.  "The  Business  Hen" 
does  none  of  these  things.  We  have  purposely  avoided  all  reference 
to  big  stories  in  the  book,  for  those  things  do  far  more  harm  than 
good  to  the  beginner  in  poultry,  and  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  con- 
cealed advertisement  to  be  found  in  this  volume.  We  have  simply 
tried  to  tell  in  simple  language  which  all  can  understand  how  to 
breed,  hatch,  raise  and  handle  the  hen  that  is  capable  of  feeding  the 
family  or  rolling  a  mortgage  away  upon  her  eggs.  That  is  what 
we  conceive  the  "Business  Hen"  to  be,  and  we  have  tried  to  hold 


INTRODUCTION. 

fast  to  the  subject.  As  we  have  stated,  the  original  book  grew 
out  of  an  effort  to  answer  thousands  of  poultry  questions  which  were 
asked  by  our  readers.  These  questions  have  become  more  numerous 
than  ever,  and  in  "The  Latest  Hatch"  they  have  been  grouped  and 
classified  for  answer.  Our  plan  has  been  to  go  to  some  expert  with 
each  group  of  questions  and  let  him  cover  them  in  a  concise  and 
practical  chapter.  Thus  the  chapter  on  "Incubation,"  by  Mr.  Finch, 
is,  we  believe,  the  most  useful  discussion  of  the  subject  ever  given 
in  condensed  form.  In  like  manner  the  chapter  on  "Brooding,"  by  F. 
Q.  White,  is  the  boiled-down  experience  of  a  life  spent  in  the  chicken 
yard.  The  entire  book  has  been  prepared  in  this  way.  The  chapter 
on  "The  Business  Hen  House,"  by  Professor  Rogers  and  the  chap- 
ters by  Professor  Rice  and  Professor  Stoneburn,  in  fact  the  entire 
book,  form  a  solid  foundation  for  the  study  of  poultry  culture.  Our 
effort  has  been  to  give  facts  and  state  principles  clearly.  No  man 
can  give  another  "instinct"  or  that  peculiar  quality  which  makes  the 
successful  hen  man.  We  realize  that  no  one  can  obtain  this  quality 
from  the  printed  page.  The  reader  must  understand  that  he  must 
develop  that  for  himself,  and  if  he  will  do  it  he  will  find  no  better 
friend  on  the  farm  than  our  little  servant  in  feathers,  "The  Business 
Hen." 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Chapter  I.  The   Business   Breeds 9 

Chapter  11.  What  Is  an  Egg? 14 

Chapter  III.  Hatching  the  Egg 24 

Chapter  IV.  Brooding   40 

Chapter  V.  The  First  Summer 50 

Chapter  VI.  The   Business   Henhouse 56 

Chapter  VII.  Diseases  of  Poultry 68 

Chapter  VIII.  Feeding  the  Business  Hen 82 

Chapter  IX.  Breeding  the  Business  Hen 92 

Chapter  X.  A  Connecticut  Man's  Experience 108 

Chapter  XI.  Marketing   Eggs 116 

Chapter  XII.  Killing  and  Marketing  Poultry. 121 

Chapter  XIII.  A  Woman's  Hens 126 

Chapter  XIV.  The  Poultry  "Systems"  Discussed 131 

Chapter  XV.  Side  Lines  in  Poultry 136 

Chapter  XVI.  Homemade  Poultry  Devices 143 

Chapter  XVII.  Poultry  in  Large  Flocks 154 

Chapter  XVIII.  Companions  of  the  Hen 163 

Chapter  XIX.  A  Big  Family  of  Roasters ..." 169 

Chapter  XX.  All  Sorts  of  Hen  Methods 173 

Chapter  XXI.  Odds  and  Ends 180 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  BUSINESS  BREEDS. 

No  man  can  succeed  with  poultry  unless  he  is  "half  hen  with 
feathers  growing  on  his  back."  This  means  that  such  a  man  must 
love  the  business  and  also  love  and  understand  a  hen,  otherwise  he 
can  not  gain  that  "instinct"  which  is  the  foundation  of  all  success 
in  handling  animals.  We  recognize  this  at  the  beginning,  and  there- 
fore do  not  attempt  to  lay  down  any  cast-iron  rules  for  poultry 
keeping.  A  man  who  gains  this  hen  instinct  can  make  a  success 
with  any  breed  of  poultry.  To  such  a  man,  any  breed,  no  matter 
what,  is  the  best  business  breed,  but  as  a  rule  any  man  will  do  his 
best  with  a  breed  which  possesses  temperament  and  action  not  unlike 
his  own.  There  is  much  human  nature  in  a  hen,  and  a  man  may 
well  look  for  this  quality  in  his  feathered  friend,  just  the  same  as 
in  his  human  companions.  That  is  why  we  would  not  pretend  to 
select  a  breed  of  poultry  for  a  stranger,  nor  would  we  lay  down 
any  definite  advice  regarding  this  point.  All  that  we  can  fairly  do 
is  to  give  the  simple  characteristics  of  the  various  business  breeds 
or  types,  leaving  the  reader  to  study  the  hen  himself  and  make  his 
own  choice.  The  wisdom  of  this  will  be  recognized  by  anyone  who 
remembers  that  there  will  be  as  great  difference  in  profit  between 
two  flocks  of  the  same  breed  as  there  will  be  between  two  flocks  of 
different  breeds.  There  may  be  mutual  exchange  of  character 
between  a  man  and  his  flock  of  hens,  and  possibly  that  is  one  reason 
why  some  men  grow  better  when  they  become  hen  keepers,  while 
some  flocks  grow  poorer  through  association  with  men. 

s  The  average  man  will  not  care  so  much  where  the  breed  comes 
from  or  for  its  fancy  points  of  feather  and  shape,  as  for  its  general 
characteristics,  and  whether  it  is  adapted  to  his  temperament  and 
condition.  This  book  is  not  for  the  fancier  or  for  the  men  who 
pay  most  attention  to  feathers,  comb  and  feet,  but  rather  for  plain 
people  who  do  not  want  to  keep  hens  so  much  as  to  have  hens  keep 
them.  For  such  purpose  we  may  roughly  class  the  business  breeds 
for  profit  and  quality  under  four  heads — the  Mediterranean  or  ner- 
vous, non-sitting  breeds ;  the  American  breeds,  those  originated  or 
made  up  in  this  country  to  suit  local  or  special  conditions ;  the 
Asiatics,  which  represent  a  large,  heavy  type  of  birds,  useful  mainly 


10  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

as  meat  producers  or  for  crossing  upon  other  breeds,  and  the  Euro- 
peans or  breeds  native  of  Europe  and  Great  Britain,  which  combine 
to  some  extent  the  good  quahty  of  the  three  other  classes. 

The  Leghorn  is  the  best  example  of  the  non-sitting  class.  This 
is  a  small  nervous  high-strung  hen  with  a  very  large  comb.  The 
Leghorn  without  question  is  the  best  breed  for  those  who  want  an 
abundance  of  large  white  eggs,  and  are  willing  to  hatch  the  chickens 
very  largely  in  incubators.  In  our  own  experience  the  Black 
Minorca,  which  resembles  the  Leghorn  in  many  respects,  lays  a 
larger  white  tgg,  but  we  find  this  breed  is  not  as  hardy  as  the  Leg- 
horn. In  fact,  it  is  quite  tender  in  a  damp  climate  and  requires  on 
the  whole  considerable  more  food.  The  Black  Minorca  with  us 
stands  confinement  better  than  the  Leghorn,  but  does  not  mature 
as  early.  There  were  originally  two  distinct  types  of  the  Leghorn, 
the  Brown  and  White.  We  have  found  the  Browns  rather  smaller 
than  the  Whites.  The  young  greatly  resembling  young  partridges. 
The  Brown  lays  a  smaller  tgg,  except  in  a  few  families  which  have 
been  selected  or  bred  with  a  view  to  increasing  the  size  of  the  ^gg. 
The  Brown  is  probably  hardier  than  the  White,  does  not  appear  to 
be  so  nervous,  will  stand  confinement  better,  and  the  average  speci- 
men will  probably  lay  a  few  more  eggs  than  the  Whites.  The 
Browns,  however,  are  very  difficult  to  breed  true  to  color,  and 
they  do  not  make  as  good  a  carcass  when  dressed.  The  White  Leg- 
horn may  be  said  to  represent  in  the  poultry  world  about  what  the 
Jersey  cow  does  in  the  dairy — nervous,  active,  small  in  size,  but  great 
in  production.  Some  of  the  most  successful  poultry  plants  in  the 
country  use  the  White  Leghorn  exclusively.  The  objections  to  Leg- 
horns are  the  small  size  in  some  families,  the  large  comb  which 
makes  them  tender  in  Winter  and  in  some  places  the  fact  that  the 
hens  rarely  sit,  so  that  an  incubator  must  be  used.  This,  however, 
is  not  much  of  an  objection  in  modern  poultry  keeping  where  the 
incubator  is  considered  a  necessity  anyway.  The  White  Leghorn 
hen  is  not  only  a  most  excellent  layer,  but  her  brother,  the  cockerel, 
makes  a  good  broiler,  growing  rapidly,  and  when  properly  fed  and 
handled  giving  a  good  proportion  of  breast  meat.  One  argument  in 
favor  of  the  Leghorn  is  their  small  size,  which  will  enable  one  in 
a  town  lot  or  in  a  back  yard  to  keep  a  good  number  of  them  in  one 
house.  From  our  experience,  however,  we  should  prefer  the  Wyan- 
dottes  or  Light  Brahmas  in  such  situations,  since  they  are  tamer 
and  will  stand  confinement  better.  As  a  rule,  the  eggs  from  the 
Leghorn  are  very  fertile,  and  the  hens  mature  rapidly  when  given 
good  care.  There  are  several  other  breeds  which  are  put  in  this 
class,  but  the  Leghorn  is  typical  of  the  lot. 


THE  BUSINESS  BREEDS.  11 

Of  the  American  breeds  the  three  most  prominent  are  Plymouth 
Rock,  Wyandotte,  and  Rhode  Island  Red.  These  are  all  "made" 
breeds,  originated  by  crossing  two  or  more  breeds  and  carefully 
selecting  through  several  generations  until  a  definite  type  has  been 
fixed.  The  history  of  the  Rhode  Island  Red  gives  us  a  good  instance 
of  this.  For  a  good  many  years  certain  farmers  in  Rhode  Island 
selected  red  fowl  out  of  their  flocks.  The  reasons  they  gave  for 
doing  this  was  that  they  believed  these  red  birds  were  particularly 
hardy.  At  that  time  there  was  much  foreign  shipping  from  the  ports 
of  Rhode  Island,  and  the  sea  captains  brought  home  fowls  from 
other  countries.  These  birds  came  from  Europe  and  Asia,  and  the 
result  of  bringing  them  over  and  mixing  them  with  Rhode  Island 
flocks  was  the  production  of  what  was  practically  a  new  breed. 
Through  the  selection  of  these  red  birds,  naturally  when  picking  by 
color  many  different  types  of  birds  were  brought  out,  but  finally 
it  was  decided  to  select  not  only  by  color,  but  for  definite  form, 
shape  and  other  characteristics.  The  result  was  an  ideal  hen,  and 
by  holding  to  this  ideal  in  the  selection  of  birds  the  Rhode  Island 
Red  breed,  as  we  have  it  now,  was  brought  out.  This  breed  is  verj'- 
popular  in  many  places.  It  is  probably  the  best  Winter  layer  of  any 
of  the  American  breeds.  The  hens  are  good  sitters,  mature  early, 
and  are  quiet  and  good-natured  under  confinement.  They  make  a 
good  carcass,  and  are  greatly  prized  for  their  color.  This  color, 
however,  is  not  as  well  fixed  as  in  the  case  of  the  Plymouth  Rock 
and  the  Wyandotte,  and  those  who  breed  Rhode  Island  Reds  are 
still  obliged  to  reject  a  fair  number  of  their  birds  each  year  for  this 
reason.  The  Plymouth  Rock  is  an  older  breed  than  the  Rhode  Island 
Red,  supposed  to  have  resulted  from  crossing  the  old  Dominique 
and  the  Java  with  the  Brahmas.  It  is  also  claimed  that  Game  blood 
was  used.  The  breed  now,  however,  is  thoroughly  fixed.  Originally 
the  Plymouth  Rocks  were  barred  or  speckled,  but  of  late  years  half 
a  dozen  colors  have  appeared  such  as  White  and  Buff.  It  is  not 
claimed  that  the  colors  particularly  improve  the  quality  or  value 
of  the  bird,  although  without  question  new  blood  of  other  breeds 
was  used  with  the  original  Plymouth  Rock  to  produce  the  new 
colors.  The  Wyandotte  is  also  a  "made"  breed,  produced  by  crossing 
two  or  more  other  breeds.  As  between  the  Plymouth  Rock  and  the 
Wyandotte  there  is  much  argument  as  to  which  is  the  better  bird.  It 
would  be  easy  to  find  a  single  flock  of  one  breed  which  is  better 
than  another  flock  of  the  other  breed,  but  this  would  be  due  more 
to  the  care  in  selection  of  the  owner  than  to  the  natural  qualities 
of  the  breeds.  Generally  speaking,  the  Plymouth  Rock  is  a  larger 
bird  than  the  Wyandotte,  and  also  lays  a  larger  egg  of  a  more  dis- 


12  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

tinct  color.  While  some  flocks  of  Plymouth  Rock  will  lay  more 
eggs  than  the  Wyandotte,  the  two  breeds  are  probably  about  equal 
in  this  respect.  The  Plymouth  Rock  as  a  rule  will  average  larger 
than  the  Wyandotte,  although  it  is  claimed  for  the  better  class  of 
Wyandottes  they  are  of  somewhat  better  shape  and  that  when 
dressed  for  market  they  have  fewer  dark  pin  feathers  and  also  show 
clear,  yellow  skin.  The  Wyandottes  also,  as  a  rule,  being  smaller 
birds,  will  mature  quicker  than  the  Rocks.  Good  arguments  can  be 
made  for  all  three  of  the  leading  American  breeds,  so  that  it  is 
largely  a  question  of  the  man  behind  them  rather  than  the  birds 
themselves.  A  new  breed  known  as  Buckeye  has  now  appeared. 
These  Buckeyes  are  said  to  have  been  made  by  crossing  a  Pea 
Comb  Rhode  Island  Red  with  an  Indian  Game.  They  are  very 
much  like  the  Rhode  Island  Red  fowl,  except  in  the  under  color,  but 
for  practical  purposes  the  Buckeyes  are  m^uch  like  the  Reds,  and 
very  useful  as  general  purpose  fowls.  One  feature  of  this  American 
breed  is  the  fact  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  Reds,  they  are  bred 
in  various  colors  and  also  various  forms  of  comb,  both  single  and 
rose  comb  being  found. 

The  Asiatic  breeds  are  very  much  larger  and  less  active  than 
either  the  Mediterranean  or  the  Americans.  The  most  prominent 
example  of  this  class  in  this  country  is  the  Light  Brahma,  a  very 
old  breed  which  has  been  kept  true  to  type.  With  us  the  Light 
Brahma  is  a  very  useful  breed.  They  are  very  slow,  very  quiet  in 
disposition,  and  well  adapted  to  a  cold  country  or  to  limited  space. 
They  stand  confinement  well  and  are  exceedingly  good  birds  to  have 
upon  a  lawn,  as  they  present  a  beautiful  appearance,  and  will  not 
do  much  damage  in  a  garden.  We  have  seen  them  lying  down  in 
the  shade  under  the  lawn  trees  very  much  like  a  flock  of  sheep. 
The  comb  is  small,  the  legs  are  well  feathered  and  the  hens  seem 
to  be  well  dressed  in  fur  for  Winter.  We  find  it  harder  to  keep 
Brahmas  free  from  vermin  than  the  lighter  and  thin-feathered 
breeds,  and  they  cannot  be  fed  safely  on  food  that  would  be  suitable 
for  a  Leghorn.  When  given  too  much  corn,  they  fatten  and  stop 
laying.  With  us  Brahmas  rank  as  good  layers,  some  families  being 
quite  equal  to  the  smaller  American  birds.  They  grov/  rapidly  when 
young  and  fatten  easily.  At  broiler  size  they  are  rather  skinny  and 
bony,  but  for  roasters  they  greatly  excel.  We  think  there  is  likely 
to  be  a  revival  of  interest  in  Brahmas  in  coming  years.  They  have 
been  crowded  out  by  the  smaller  breeds,  but  they  are  likely  to  come 
back  in  popular  demand.  The  Light  Brahma  has  been  used  in  devel- 
oping many  of  the  newer  breeds.  The  Columbian  Wyandotte  has  the 
white  color  and  black  neck  marking  of  the   Brahma  without  the 


THE  BUSINESS  BREEDS.  13 

feathered  legs.  The  Cochins,  like  the  Brahmas,  have  yellow  legs  and 
skin  and  are  slow,  good-natured  birds.  The  Cochins  are  not  as 
good  layers  as  the  Brahmas.  They  are  very  clumsy,  and  with  us 
are  heavier  eaters  and  not  as  profitable.  The  Langshan  is  a  large 
black  bird  not  so  heavily  feathered  on  the  leg  as  the  Brahma,  and 
more  active  than  that  breed,  quite  desirable  where  a  black,  heavy 
breed  is  wanted. 

The  great  majority  of  what  we  call  business  hens  will  belong 
to  one  of  the  above  named  breeds.  Still  there  are  other  breeds 
which  demand  attention.  In  recent  years  the  Orpingtons  have  gained 
many  friends.  Originally  an  English  breed,  they  have  been  well 
tested  in  America  and  greatly  liked  by  some  breeders.  Like  the 
American  breeds,  the  Orpingtons  were  "made"  by  mixing  the  blood 
of  several  breeds;  In  most  cases  when  a  new  breed  is  developed  some 
of  the  Asiatics  were  used,  and  probably  the  Langshans  are  partly 
responsible  for  the  Orpingtons.  They  are  classed  as  fine  layers  and 
with  a  good  carcass,  but  they  lack  the  yellow  skin  so  prominent  in 
the  American  breeds.  The  Dorking  is  a  very  old  English  breed, 
large  and  well  shaped.  They  are  fair  layers,  excellent  mothers,  and 
probably  the  finest  of  all  as  table  fowls,  but  not  as  hardy  as  others. 
Games  have  a  reputation  as  fighters  and  are  not  much  used  as 
business  birds,  as  we  use  the  term.  The  hens  lay  fairly  well  and 
the  flesh  of  the  Game  is  excellent.  In  some  districts  where  the  hens 
run  on  a  wide  range  purebred  Games  are  crossed  with  Leghorns  or 
other  breeds.  Such  half-bred  Games  are  good  layers,  very  active 
and  with  enough  of  the  fighting  spirit  to  protect  themselves  against 
vermin.  A  hen  with  Game  blood  has  been  known  to  face  a  hawk 
and  give  it  a  good  battle  in  defense  of  her  brood  of  chicks.  As  we 
have  stated,  every  breed  can  be  used  to  produce  the  true  business 
hen,  if  the  man  back  of  her  knows  his  business.  These  various 
breeds,  or  most  of  them,  appear  in  various  colors.  For  example, 
the  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Wyandottes,  originally  speckled,  are  now 
to  be  found  in  white  and  buff.  The  new  colors  are  usually  produced 
by  breeding  in  some  outside  blood  and  then  selecting  carefully  for 
a  type.  There  is  little  in  the  color  of  the  plumage  to  indicate  any 
superiority.  The  color  is  barely  skin  deep,  but  each  variety  has  its 
admirers,  and  all  are  capable  of  becoming  the  "Business  Hen." 


CHAPTER  II. 
WHAT  IS  AN  EGG? 

The  egg  is  the  first  stage  in  the  production  of  birds.  Its  func- 
tion primarily  is  to  produce  offspring,  secondarily  to  furnish  food 
for  man.  The  hen,  therefore,  fulfills  dual  purposes  which,  in  a 
measure,  are  antagonistic  in  their  requirements.  The  demand  of 
nature  is  that  the  hen  shall  produce  eggs  that  possess  all  the  quali- 
ties of  life  and  nutrition  necessary  to  produce  strong  chickens ;  the 
demand  of  man  is  that  she  shall  furnish  eggs  good  to  hatch  and 
to  eat  and  lots  of  them.  In  order  to  satisfy  the  commercial 
requirements  of  man  the  hen  often  is  compelled  to  sacrifice  the 
higher  demands  of  nature.  It  becomes  a  vital  question,  therefore, 
for  every  poultryman  to  decide  to  what  extent  he  can  force  heavy 
laying  without  sacrificing  the  fertility  of  the  eggs  or  the  vitality 
of  the  chickens.  It  is  well,  then,  that  we  inquire  what  an  egg  is  and 
how  it  is  formed. 

HOW  THE  EGG  IS  MADE.— The  first  stage  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  egg  is  the  formation  of  the  "yolk."  The  "ovary"  or 
"egg  cluster,"  which  forms  a  part  of  the  muscular  tissue  on  the 
left  side  of  the  spine,  contains  many  yolks  in  various  stages  of 
development,  depending  upon  the  condition  of  the  hen,  from  the 
full-sized  ripe  yolk  ready  to  be  detached,  to  the  microscopic  cells 
so  small  that  they  cannot  be  discerned  by  the  naked  eye.  Within 
this  ovarian  tissue  is  the  power  to  develop  countless  other  yolks 
not  yet  apparent.  The  number  of  these  yolks  or  "ova,"  which  may 
be  developed,  is  not  a  fixed  quantity,  certainly  not  exactly  600,  as 
is  frequently  stated.  The  number  of  eggs  which  a  hen  will  lay 
depends  upon  the  inherited  tendency  of  each  hen  to  reproduce,  and 
upon  her  vigor  and  vitality  to  withstand  the  heavy  drain  upon 
her  system.  The  ovary  of  certain  hens  is  absolutely  sterile. 
Others  have  the  power  to  produce  a  few  eggs  in  short  litters, 
while  some  have  an  ovary  so  strong  and  reproductive  that  they  lay 
almost  without  cessation,  and  continue  to  do  so  for  years.  The 
egg-laying  power  is  a  matter  of  inheritance.  It  is  a  question  of 
selection  and  breeding  and  of  stimulating  the  ovaries  to  activity 
by  proper  feeding. 


WHAT  IS  AN  BGGf 


15 


The  cut  (from  Duval's  "Embryology'")  shows  the  ovary  and 
oviduct  of  a  hen;  (1)  is  the  ovary;  (2)  is  the  yolk  held  within 
the  ovisac  or  follicle  (5).  When  the  yolk  is  fully  ripe,  it  bursts 
from  the  follicle  and  drops  into  the  neck  of  the  oviduct  (3).     Here 


Fig  3 


EGG  ORGANS  OF  A  HEN.     Fig.  1. 


we  see  a  wise  provision  of  nature.  In  order  to  prevent  rupture 
of  blood  vessels  where  the  follicle  opens,  there  is  a  suture  mark 
around  the  entire  surface,  where  the  blood  vessels  meet,  but  do 
not  cross   (4).     If,  for  any  reason,  the  follicle  is  ruptured  before 


16  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

it  is  matured,  through  rough  handhng  of  the  fowl  or  because  of 
weakness  due  to  debility,  a  slight  clot  of  blood  may  escape.  This 
remains  on  the  surface  of  the  yolk  or  mingles  with  the  white, 
which  leads  the  consumer  to  suspect  an  egg  which  is  perfectly 
fresh  to  have  been  slightly  incubated.  Occasionally,  when  hens  are 
in  perfect  laying  condition,  two  yolks  will  ripen  and  burst  their 
follicles  at  the  same  time,  and  be  encased  within  the  same  shell, 
producing  a  double  yolked  tgg.  It  is  perfectly  apparent,  then,  that 
if  the  yolk  is  the  first  part  of  the  egg  to  be  formed,  all  the  condi- 
tions for  its  development  must  be  met,  or  the  hen  cannot  make  a 
perfect  egg.  The  activity  of  development  of  the  ovary  depends 
first  upon  good  health.  The  hen  in  the  best  laying  condition  is  in 
the  best  health.  Reproduction  is  a  question  of  nerve  strength, 
which  is  dependent  upon  physical  vigor.  The  over-fat  hen  does  not 
lay  well,  because  over-fatness  is  an  indication  of  physical  weakness, 
which  ends  in  debility.  A  poor  hen  cannot  lay  because  there  is  no 
surplus  fat  with  which  to  make  the  egg.  Analysis  of  the  dry 
matter  of  an  egg  shows  it  to  be  more  than  one-half  fat.  Unless 
the  fowl  can  supply  the  available  fat,  the  yolk  cannot  develop. 
Therefore,  it  will  be  found  that  the  hens  in  their  best  laying  condi- 
tion will  have  a  little  surplus  fat  in  their  bodies. 

When  the  yolk  has  entered  the  oviduct  it  is  quickly  passed 
along  where  the  albumen  or  "white"  is  deposited  (10).  During  the 
passage  it  is  pushed  forward  by  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  of 
the  oviduct,  which,  being  twisted  and  convoluted,  gives  the  yolk  a 
turning  motion  as  it  advances,  so  that  the  albumen  is  deposited  in 
several  layers.  These  layers  may  be  seen  by  examining  carefully 
a  hard-boiled  egg.  The  twisting  motion  of  the  yolk  in  its  passage 
causes  a  special  deposit  of  albumen  to  form  twisted,  string-like 
fibres  on  two  sides  of  the  yolk.  These  are  called  the  "chalazse" 
Fig.  3-1.  They  cause  the  yolk  to  swing  in  the  watery  albumen  like  a 
hammock.  This  tends  to  prevent  injury  to  the  yolk  by  any  jarring 
or  jolting  which  the  egg  may  receive.  Whatever  way  the  egg  is 
turned,  the  yolk  quickly  assumes  its  natural  position.  The  yolk, 
containing  a  large  amount  of  fat,  is  lighter  than  the  albumen,  there- 
fore has  a  tendency  to  float  upward  toward  the  surface,  which, 
during  incubation,  allows  the  young  germ  of  life,  which  is  on  the 
surface  of  the  lightest  portion  of  the  yolk,  to  float  in  the  warmest 
portion  of  the  egg,  which  is  in  contact  with  the  body  of  the  incubat- 
ing hen. 

The  yolk  is  covered  by  the  "vitelline"  membrane  (11).  The 
yellow  liquid  within  the  membrane  is  called  the  "vitellus,"  which 


WHAT  IS  AN  EGG?  17 

is  used,  for  the  most  part,  to  nourish  the  young  chicken  just  before 
and  for  several  days  after  it  hatches.  The  color  of  the  yolk 
depends  upon  the  kind  of  food  fed.  Yellow  corn  and  green  food 
produce  a  deep  colored  yolk,  while  oats,  wheat  and  buckwheat  pro- 
duce a  light  yellow,  due  to  the  absence  of  coloring  pigments  in  the 
grain.  One  of  the  first  signs  of  weakened  vitality  in  hens  is  a 
tenderness  of  the  vitelline  membrane,  which  often  ruptures  when 
eggs  are  roughly  handled.  This  allows  the  vitellus  to  escape  and 
mingle  with  the  white.  The  yolks,  therefore,  of  perfectly  fresh 
eggs,  from  such  hens,  are  likely  to  rupture  even  when  the  tgg  is 
carefully  broken.     Keeping  eggs  weakens  the  vitelline  membrane. 

Just  under  the  vitelline  membrane,  and  at  the  surface  of  the 
yolk,  is  the  "germinal  vesicle"  (12),  the  vital  life  principle  of  the 
tgg.  Without  fecundation  by  the  male  no  life  would  be  developed 
in  the  germinal  vesicle,  and  the  egg  would  be  infertile.  If  fecunda* 
tion  should  take  place  and  the  hen  should  not  be  in  vigorous  con- 
dition, life  would  not  necessarily  be  developed.  Infertility  is  due 
quite  as  much  to  lack  of  vital  force  of  the  hen,  because  of  close 
confinement,  excessive  laying  or  improper  feeding,  as  to  any  fault 
of  the  male.  Fecundation  probably  cannot  take  place  until  the  yolk 
has  burst  from  the  tough  skin  of  the  follicle  (6)  and  has  entered 
the  oviduct  (9).  Here  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  "spermatozoa" 
of  the  male,  which  there  swarm  and  live  for  several  weeks,  growing 
less  numerous  and  less  active  with  age.  The  spermatozoa  pene- 
trates the  vitelline  membrane,  unite  with  the  germinal  vesicle  and 
life  is  begun.  If  the  eggs  should  be  retained  for  any  considerable 
time,  which  often  happens,  the  body  heat  will  start  the  process  of 
incubation,  which  will  continue  until  the  tgg  is  placed  in  a  tempera- 
ture too  cold  for  development.  Eggs  which  are  not  fertile  will, 
therefore,  continue,  without  danger  of  incubation,  in  a  temperature 
that  would  allow  life  to  develop  within  a  fertile  egg.  * 

After  the  albumen  has  been  secreted  in  the  part  of  the  oviduct 
indicated  (9),  it  is  pushed  along  to  a  point  where  the  shell  mem- 
brane is  formed.  This  is  supposed  to  be  somewhere  at  or  between 
13-14,  after  which  another  membrane  is  added.  Then  the  tgg 
passes  to  position  marked  (15),  where  the  glands  secrete  a  liquid 
which  contains  carbonate  of  lime  and  other  mineral  matters.  The 
hardening  process  is  completed  frequently  while  the  hen  is  on  the 
nest.  A  color  pigment  is  sometimes  secreted  with  the  shell-making 
liquid,  which  gives  to  eggs  their  characteristic  colors.  The  color 
of  the  shell  is  largely  an  individual  characteristic,  and  remains  prac- 
tically constant  with  the  individual,  except  that  the  tgg  shell  grad- 
ually fades  in  color  toward  the  end  of  the  laying  period.     This  is 


18  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

particularly  noticeable  in  comparing  the  first  and  the  last  eggs  laid 
by  turkeys.  The  shell-making  fluid  appears  to  be  secreted  by  tiny 
ducts,  which  leave  their  impression  by  numerous  fine  depressions  or 
pores  in  the  egg  shell,  which  can  be  easily  seen  upon  close  inspec- 
tion. The  importance  of  providing  mineral  matter  in  the  form  of 
cracked  oyster  shell,  mortar  and  bone,  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  if  the 
hen  lacks  these  materials  or  through  debility  cannot  assimilate  them, 
her  eggs  will  be  soft-shelled.  Naturally,  when  the  egg  production 
has  drained  her  system  of  this  material,  her  appetite  craves  it,  and 
if  it  is  not  otherwise  supplied,  she  will  instinctively  eat  the  egg 
shells.     This  is  the  most  common  cause  of  egg  eating. 

When  the  egg  rests  in  the  "cloaca,"  (5),  before  being  laid,  it 
is  covered  with  a  secretion  that  assists  in  the  depositing  of  the  egg, 
which,  when  dry,  gives  the  shell  its  natural  fresh  appearance,  and 
which,  undoubtedly,  has  much  to  do  with  controlling  the  evapora- 
tion of  the  contents  of  the  egg.  Therefore  eggs  for  hatching  should 
not  be  washed  unless  it  be  to  remove  dirt  which  would  materially 
stop  the  pores  in  the  shell.  This  oily  coating  is  particularly  apparent 
on  duck  eggs. 

It  is  to  be  doubted  whether  a  hen  can  voluntarily  stop  the  forma- 
tion of  an  egg  up  to  the  point  of  its  completion.  But  she  can 
retain  the  egg  at  will  for  considerable  time  thereafter.  It  is  per- 
fectly certain,  however,  that  improper  feeding,  neglect,  fright,  or 
any  condition  that  interferes  with  digestion  or  peace  of  mind  will 
stop  the  process  of  egg  making  in  any  of  its  stages.  Frequently 
the  white  is  deposited  without  yolk  or  shell.  It  is  very  common 
to  find  eggs  devoid  of  shell,  and  occasionally  a  yolk  will  be  laid 
without  shell  or  albumen.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  an  egg  with 
white  and  shell  complete  without  the  yolk.  In  rare  instances  a 
perfect  egg  has  been  found  within  an  egg.  This  is  brought  about 
by  the  completed  egg  being  forced  back  by  injury  through  the 
portion  of  the  oviduct  where  additional  albumen  is  secreted  and  then 
returned  to  the  place  where  a  new  shell  is  deposited.  When  the  egg 
evaporates,  the  outer  membrane  continues  to  adhere  to  the 
shell,  while  the  inner  membrane  follows  the  contents  of  the  egg 
as  it  shrinks  in  size,  thus  forming  the  air  space,  which  is  usually 
at  the  large  end  of  the  egg,  occasionally  on  the  side  and  rarely  on 
the  small  end. 

SHAPE,  SIZE  AND  COLOR  OF  EGGS.— The  shape  of  the 
egg  is  determined  by  the  form  of  the  mold  in  which  it  is  cast, 
which  differs  with  breeds,  varieties  and  even  with  individuals  of 
the  same  strain.    The  form  of  egg  peculiar  to  an  individual  remains 


WHAT  IS  AN  EGG?  19 

practically  constant,  so  much  so  that  one  can  pick  out  an  eg^  from 
certain  hens  from  a  large  flock  with  quite  a  degree  of  certainty, 
purely  by  the  shape  of  the  egg.  The  groups  of  eggs  shown  on 
next  page.  Fig.  2,  show  this  point  very  accurately.  The  eggs 
marked  (a)  were  laid  by  hen  No.  56;  those  at  (b)  by  hen  No.  148, 
both  White  Wyandottes ;  those  at  (c)  by  hen  No.  70;  those  at  (d) 
by  hen  No.  75,  both  Single  Comb  White  Leghorns;  those  at  (e) 
were  laid  by  a  White  Plymouth  Rock;  those  at  (f)  by  a  Barred 
Plymouth  Rock.  It  will  be  seen  that  each  hen  has  a  type  of  egg 
which  is  peculiarly  her  own,  diflfering  only  slightly  from  day  to 
day,  except  in  a  case  of  abnormality  due  to  some  unusual  condition. 
The  eggs  marked  a,  b,  c  and  d  were  picked  out  of  a  large  tray  full 
of  eggs  which  were  laid  by  different  hens.  The  selection  was  made 
strictly  upon  their  shape  and  color,  without  looking  at  the  number 
of  the  hen,  which  is  marked  on  the  large  end  of  the  egg  when  it  is 
gathered.  The  peculiar  characteristics  distinguishing  the  tgg  were 
so  marked  that  scarcely  any  error  was  made  guessing  the  identity 
of  the  hen  that  laid  them.  The  eggs  marked  (a)  were  distinguish- 
able by  their  large  size,  extreme  length,  and  rich,  uniform  light 
brown  color;  eggs  marked  (b)  by  their  perfect  egg  shape,  large 
size  and  dark  brown  color;  eggs  marked  (c)  by  their  long,  thin 
form  with  a  tendency  to  a  slight  ridge  in  the  center;  eggs  marked 
(d)  by  their  almost  abnormal  roundness;  eggs  marked  (e)  by  the 
peculiar  wart-like  excrescence  on  the  small  end  of  each  egg. 

ABNORMAL  EGGS. — Abnormal  eggs  are  due  either  to  injury 
to  the  fowl  while  the  egg  is  being  formed  or  to  faulty  nutrition. 
Various  types  of  abnormal  eggs  are  shown  in  the  cut  (c)  and  (1)  are 
too  long;  (m),  (e)  and  (o)  too  round;  (k)  is  wedge  shaped;  (o) 
has  a  decided  ridge  at  the  center;  (f)  and  (q)  are  flattened  on  one 
side;  those  marked  (j)  are  elliptical;  (i)  are  almost  cylindrical;  (a) 
is  drawn  out  at  the  point;  (p)  are  eggs  with  rough,  weak  shells; 
(g)  is  as  round  as  a  marble  and  about  the  size  of  a  hickory  nut; 
(h)  is  about  the  same  size,  but  elongated;  those  marked  (r)  repre- 
sent the  two  extremes  in  size,  a  double  yolked  egg  and  a  diminutive 
but  perfect  shaped  egg.  These  small  eggs  are  nearly  always  devoid 
of  yolks.  It  does  not  follow  that  a  hen  that  lays  a  diminutive  egg 
has  laid  similar  eggs  previously  or  that  she  will  do  so  again. 
Eggs  marked  (g),  in  the  cut,  were  all  laid  by  the  Single  Comb 
White  Leghorn  hen  No.  85;  those  eggs  marked  (h),  were  laid 
by  the  Single  Comb  White  Leghorn  hen  No.  82,  the  two  normal  eggs 
in  each  case  being  laid  a  few  days  after  the  abnormal.  The  abnor- 
mality, however,  may  continue.  One  hen  laid  seven  diminutive 
eggs  continuously  and  then  stopped  laying.    Of  the  five  eggs  marked 


20 


THB  BUSINESS  HBN. 


TYPES  OF  EGGS.    Fig.  2. 


WHAT  IS  AN  EGG?  21 

(a),  Fig.  2,  the  first  two  eggs  which  are  perfect  and  normal  were 
followed  by  the  abnormal  long-drawn-out  egg  which  was  so  weak 
at  the  point  that  it  scarcely  retained  the  egg  contents.  Within  two 
or  three  days  following  the  other  two  eggs  were  laid  which  were 
perfectly   normal   and    sound. 

TIME  REQUIRED  TO  MAKE  AN  EGG.— Just  how  long  it 
takes  for  each  part  of  the  egg  to  be  secreted  is  not  known.  The 
whole  process  is  supposed  to  take  about  eighteen  hours.  Consider- 
able time  is  taken  for  the  shell  to  be  deposited  and  to  harden.  Two 
eggs  can  be  under  way  in  the  oviduct  at  the  same  time.  When  the 
hen  is  not  laying  the  oviduct  is  shrunken  and  not  more  than  one- 
fifth  its  natural  size.  Like  all  secretory  organs,  the  oviduct  enlarges 
when  it  is  active.  In  this  one  respect  it  may  be  compared  to  the 
udder  of  a  cow  "fresh  in  milk"  and  one  "gone  dry."  The  oviduct 
when  stretched  out  and  congested  is  normally  a  little  over  twenty 
inches  long. 

EGG  MAKING  AN  EXHAUSTIVE  PROCESS.— The  develop- 
ment of  an  egg  is  more  elaborate  and  more  exhaustive  than  a 
simple  secretion  like  that  of  milk-making.  It  is  both  a  reproductive 
and  a  secretory  process.  The  perfect  egg  contains  the  materials 
and  the  life  to  form  a  new  animal,  a  shell  to  protect  it  during 
subsequent  development,  and  the  food  to  nourish  it  for  several  days 
after  it  is  born.  A  good  hen  is  expected  to  lay,  that  is,  in  reality, 
to  give  birth  to  about  150  offspring  in  a  year,  which  is  equivalent 
to  about  five  times  her  own  weight.  This  is  a  heavy  drain  upon 
her  system.  Something  of  its  immediate  effect  will  be  seen  by  the 
fact  ascertained  by  one  of  our  students  (Henry  Jennings)  that  a 
hen's  temperature  immediately  after  laying  is  from  two  to  three 
degrees  higher  than  normal,  the  normal  being  about  106. 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  EGG.— The  composition  of  the  egg 
remains  practically  constant.  This  is  true  even  under  diflferent 
systems  of  feeding.  Careful  observations  of  two  Plymouth 
Rock  hens  was  made  and  the  eggs  analyzed  after  they  had  been  fed 
about  three  months  on  radically  different  rations.  Pen  No.  1  was 
fed  largely  on  protein-rich  foods ;  pen  No.  2  was  fed  largely  on 
foods  deficient  in  protein,  the  former  being  a  ration  for  making 
muscle  and  the  latter  for  making  fat.  Nevertheless  the  eggs  from 
the  two  pens  remained  practically  identical  in  composition.  This 
illustrates  one  of  the  highest  laws  of  nature ;  namely,  that  the 
animal  will  sacrifice  its  own  bodily  strength  in  an  effort  to  make  a 
perfect  offspring,  which  is  a  necessary  provision  to  insure  the  per- 
petuation of  the  species.    There  is  little  difference  in  the  composition 


22  THE  BUSINESS  HEX. 

of  eggs  from  different  breeds,  or  between  light-shelled  and  dark- 
shelled  eggs. 

There  is  a  difference  between  hens  that  are  well  fed  and  those 
that  are  improperly  fed,  as  shown  in  their  fertility,  the  strength  of 
the  germs  and  the  vitality  of  the  chickens.  The  chemist  may  not 
be  able  to  find  the  difference  in  the  composition  of  the  eggs,  but  the 
difference  is  there,  nevertheless.  Hens  that  are  closely  confined  to 
limited  quarters  where  they  do  not  get  exercise  nor  have  access  to 
sunshine  and  fresh  air,  even  though  well  fed,  are  almost  certain  to 
produce  eggs  low  in  fertility  and  weak  in  vitality.  Over-fat  hens 
and  very  poor  hens,  if  they  lay  at  all,  are  certain  to  produce  eggs 
which  are  almost  devoid  of  the  life-giving  principles. 

While  forced  feeding  of  highly  stimulating  foods  during  Fall 
and  Winter  might  result  in  a  condition  of  nerve  exhaustion  during 
the  hatching  season  and  would  naturally  result  in  less  fertile  eggs, 
it  does  not  follow  that  just  because  hens  do  not  lay  during  the  Fall 
and  Winter  they  will  give  more  fertile  eggs  during  the  Spring. 
Most  frequently  the  hens  that  do  not  lay  during  the  Winter  have 
not  been  properly  cared  for,  they  being  either  too  fat  from  over- 
feeding or  im.proper  feeding,  or  too  poor  because  under-fed.  The 
fowl  that  lays  the  most  fertile  eggs  is  the  one  that  is  in  the  best 
health.  She  may  be  the  hen  that  has  laid  regularly  for  a  long 
period  of  time.  To  get  fertile  eggs,  open-air  exercise  and  plenty 
of  meat  and  green  food  are  necessary. 

FERTILITY. — The  proportion  of  males  to  females  in  the  breed- 
ing flock  depends  upon  the  breed,  also  upon  the  individual.  One 
vigorous,  active,  prepotent  male  will  give  greater  fertility  than  three 
or  four  sluggish  males.  I  have  known  almost  perfect  fertility  with 
36  White  Leghorn  females  to  one  male  and  have  seen  almost  abso- 
lute sterility  where  one  male  ran  with  eight  females.  Other  con- 
ditions being  equal,  the  Mediterranean  class  (Leghorns,  Minorcas, 
etc.)  can  usually  be  mated,  20  to  25  hens  to  one  male;  the  American 
class  (Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  Javas,  etc.),  15  to  20  females 
to  one  male;  Asiatic  (Cochins,  Brahmas,  etc.),  8  to  12  females  to 
one  male.  Where  fowls  are  kept  in  flocks  which  require  two  males 
(for  instance,  40  or  50  Leghorn  females),  it  is  better  to  allow  only 
one  of  the  males  at  a  time  with  the  flock.  The  other  one  should  be 
kept  in  a  coop  with  plenty  of  water,  grit  and  food  containing  an 
abundance  of  meat.  Two  males  running  together  in  the  same  flock 
dissipate  too  much  of  their  energy  in  fighting.  This  is  particularly 
true  if  they  are  in  limited  quarters.  Very  good  results,  however, 
are  obtained  by  allowing  one  male  to  25  females  where  fowls  run 
together  in  flocks  of  several  hundred  on  unlimited  range. 


WHAT  IS  AN  EGGf  S3 

EGG  TYPE  A  BREED  CHARACTERISTIC— The  shape, 
size  and  color  of  the  egg  being  comparatively  constant  with  indi- 
viduals, it  is  evident  that  like  other  characteristics,  they  can  be 
transmitted  from  one  generation  to  another,  and  therefore  by 
selecting  only  eggs  of  a  certain  size,  shape  and  color  for  hatching, 
their  characteristics  become  fixed  so  that  a  strain  of  hens  will  be 
developed  which  will  lay  eggs  of  the  desired  type  with  great 
regularity.  This  has  been  demonstrated  where,  for  years,  only 
eggs  have  been  used  that  weighed  two  ounces  or  more,  of  perfect 
shape  and  pure  white  color,  for  hatching.  Each  year  the  per- 
centage of  hatchable  eggs  astonishingly  increased,  and  the  number 
of  eggs  which  would  have  to  be  thrown  out  because  of  not  fulfilling 
the  requirements,  materially  decreased.  The  result  is  that  the 
average  size  and  beauty  of  the  egg  has  materially  increased  year 
by  year.  This  principle  also  has  been  strikingly  illustrated  on  a 
farm  where  the  person  who  took  charge  of  the  hens  believed  that 
round  eggs  would  hatch  pullets  and  long  eggs  slightly  wrinkled 
at  the  small  end,  would  hatch  cockerels.  For  years  she  would 
select  the  roundest  eggs  for  hatching,  with  the  result  that  year 
by  year  the  eggs  became  rounder  and  rounder,  until  they  were 
abnormally  so  and  it  became  almost  a  trade  mark  of  the  eggs  from 
this  farm.  Of  course  the  per  cent  of  pullets  continued  as  usual. 
Mother  Nature  could  not  be  thwarted  thus.  The  sex  of  an  Q.gg  can- 
not be  determined  by  shape  or  other  external  conditions. 

It  is  well  to  select  only  perfectly  shaped  eggs,  uniform  in  color, 
of  good  texture  and  firm  shell,  neither  over  large  nor  very  small, 
because  they  will  be  more  likely  to  produce  chickens  that  lay 
similar  eggs,  which  look  better  and  therefore  sell  for  a  higher  price 
and  which  also  hatch  more  satisfactorily. 

KEEPING  EGGS  FOR  HATCHING.— Keeping  eggs  weakens 
their  vitality.  If  they  are  held  at  too  low  a  temperature  the  chill- 
ing injures  them.  If  they  are  kept  in  too  warm  a  temperature, 
development  begins.  Just  what  temperature  is  best  for  holding  eggs 
for  hatching  is  not  known.  It  appears  to  be  between  45  and  55 
degrees  Fahrenheit.  Eggs  evaporate  moisture  very  rapidly  if  kept 
in  a  very  dry  room.  Therefore  they  should  be  kept  from  a  direct 
draft  of  air.  They  should  be  turned  daily  in  order  to  prevent  the 
yolks  rising  to  the  surface  and  adhering  to  the  shell,  in  which  case 
the  vitelline  membrane  may  become  ruptured  when  the  tgg  is 
turned.  Eggs  should  prove  fertile  within  three  or  four  days 
after  the  male  has  been  introduced  to  the  flock.  They  should  be 
fertile  with  the  second  egg  after  copulation  takes  place  and  may  be 
fertile  with  the  first  egg. 


CHAPTER  III. 

HATCHING  THE  EGG. 

Inasmuch  as  strong,  vigorous  chicks  are  not  always  the  result 
obtained  from  properly  incubated  eggs,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that 
successful  chicken  hatching  does  not  depend  entirely  on  the  methods 
of  incubation.  The  production  of  perfect  baby  chicks  necessitates 
care  and  consideration  further  back  than  the  development  of  the 
embryo.  The  selection  of  strong,  fully  matured  breeding  stock,  well 
mated,  properly  fed  and  housed,  has  as  much,  if  not  more,  to  do 
with  the  production  of  strong  offspring  as  proper  incubation.  Eggs 
from  hens  that  have  been  laying  heavily  all  Winter,  or  that  have 
not  had  a  sufficient  amount  of  green  food,  can  hardly  be  expected 
to  hatch  well.  Eggs  from  hens  fed  a  forcing  ration  will  not  produce 
as  strong  chicks  as  those  from  hens  allowed  to  take  a  more  natural 
course.  The  egg  provides  the  nourishment  on  which  the  embryo 
grows,  and  it  must  contain  the  proper  material  to  produce  desirable 
chicks  by  any  system  of  hatching.  It  is  just  as  essential  that  we 
feed  our  breeders  for  strong  germ  production  as  it  is  to  feed  our 
layers  for  heavy  egg  production. 

SELECTING  EGGS. — A  great  deal  of  improvement  can  be  made 
in  the  flock,  as  well  as  bettering  the  hatches,  by  carefully  selecting  the 
eggs  for  incubation.  Take  out  all  the  ill-shaped  eggs  as  well  as 
those  with  thin,  porous,  or  coarse  shells.  On  close  examination,  the 
shells  of  some  eggs  will  be  found  very  thin  and  wrinkly  at  the  little 
end.  Such  eggs  are  often  broken  during  incubation.  It  is  well  to 
sound  each  egg  as  they  are  selected,  by  tapping  two  together.  In 
this  way  one  will  soon  be  able  to  tell  those  with  weak  or  cracked 
shells.  Eggs  with  defective  shells  are  sometimes  selected  by  testing, 
but  this  method  takes  some  time  and  is  not  considered  worth  while. 
If  possible,  set  the  eggs  from  each  breed  separate,  for  the  eggs  from 
some  classes  of  fowls  hatch  earlier  than  others.  The  Leghorn  eggs, 
if  fresh,  will  hatch  earlier  than  those  from  heavier  breeds,  and  con- 
sequently some  of  the  younger  chicks  will  be  trampled  on  or  even 
prevented  from  breaking  out  of  the  shell.  For  a  good,  even  hatch 
set  eggs  as  near  of  an  age  as  possible,  the  fresher  the  better. 
V*  KEEPING  EGGS.— Eggs  should  be  set  as  soon  as  possible  after 
they  are  laid.     It  has  been  found  that  eggs  set  the  same  day  they  are  laid 


HATCHING  THE  EGG.  25 

will  hatch  from  18  to  20  hours  earlier  than  those  kept  two  weeks. 
I  believe  that  eggs  kept  over  one  week  before  setting  lose  hatching 
power,  but  experiments  have  been  tried  at  the  Department  of  Poultry- 
Husbandry,  Cornell  University,  which  show  that  eggs  can  be  kept 
two  weeks  under  proper  conditions,  and  still  hatch  well.  If  they 
are  to  be  kept  more  than  two  or  three  days,  it  is  best  to  turn  them 
once  a  day.  The  eggs  can  be  turned  satisfactorily  by  packing  them 
in  a  common  egg  crate  and  turning  it  each  day  as  a  new  lot  of  eggs 
is  packed.  As  soon  as  the  eggs  are  gathered  they  should  be  placed 
in  a  cool  place,  preferably  50°  F.,  or  as'  near  that  as  possible.  The 
air  of  the  room  in  which  they  are  kept  should  be  just  moist  enough 
to  prevent  evaporation  of  the  egg  contents.  In  cold  weather,  the 
eggs  intended  for  incubation  purposes  should  be  gathered  several 
times  a  day  to  prevent  chilling.  However,  eggs  containing  strong 
germs  will  hatch  after  being  subject  to  a  very  low  temperature.  I 
recently  set  30  eggs  which  had  been  in  cold  storage  two  weeks,  and 
hatched  16  apparently  strong  and  healthy  chicks.  The  eggs  you  wish 
to  incubate  should  be  clean,  but  not  washed  unless  just  before  set- 
ting, and  if  washed,  the  water  should  never  be  allowed  to  soak  in. 

SHIPPING  EGGS. — Nature  has  so  perfectly  constructed  the  t^gg 
that  it  will  stand  considerable  rough  handling  without  injury,  if 
properly  packed.  Good  hatches  can  be  obtained  from  eggs  shipped 
a  long  distance,  if  the  shipper  understands  packing  them.  A  light, 
well-constructed  box  or  basket  should  be  used.  First,  place  a  layer 
of  excelsior  in  the  bottom  and  around  the  sides  of  the  basket.  Then 
roll  each  tgg,  first  in  soft  paper  and  then  in  excelsior.  See  that 
they  are  v/ell  covered  and  do  not  touch  each  other  in  the  basket. 
After  a  layer  has  been  packed,  place  a  layer  of  excelsior  over  them. 
Put  as  many  layers  of  eggs  on  top  of  these  as  you  wish,  but  be  care- 
ful to  pack  them  with  a  layer  of  excelsior  between  the  layers.  After 
all  the  eggs  are  in  the  basket,  place  a  good  layer  of  excelsior  over 
them,  and  sew  a  stout  cloth  cover  over  the  top,  A  large,  conspicu- 
ous label  marked  "Eggs  For  Hatching.  Handle  With  Care"  should 
be  fastened  on  the  basket.  The  shipper's  and  consignee's  name  and 
address  should  be  plainly  written  on  a  shipping  tag  and  securely 
fastened  to  the  handle.  Never  ship  other  than  strictly  fresh  eggs. 
Sometimes  eggs  going  only  a  short  distance  are  delayed  several  days 
on  the  road.  After  receiving  eggs  for  hatching,  they  should  be 
allowed  to  stand  three  or  four  hours  before  starting  to  incubate. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EMBRYO.— Just  beneath  the  vitel- 
line membrane  in  the  upper  surface  of  the  yolk  of  all  eggs  is  found  the 
life  germ.  The  yolk  floats  in  a  dense  mass  of  albumen,  called  the  cha- 
laza^  which  is  in  the  form  of  cords  or  a  hammock.    The  chalaza  keeps 


26  THE  BUSINESS  HEN, 

the  life  germ  near  the  surface  of  heat,  and  also  protects  the  growing 
embryo  from  injury.  Although  the  life  germ  exists  in  all  eggs,  it 
will  not  develop  without  the  introduction  of  the  male  element.  The 
germ  is  fertilized  while  in  the  oviduct,  and  a  certain  stage  of  devel- 
opment is  reached  before  the  tgg  is  laid.  After  the  egg  leaves  the 
body  development  is  retarded  unless  kept  at  the  proper  temperature. 
Occasionally  a  freshly  laid  tgg  is  found  to  contain  a  partly  developed 
embryo.  In  such  a  case  the  egg  has  doubtless  been  delayed  for  some 
time  in  its  passage  through  the  oviduct,  and  development  continues 
until  the  tgg  is  laid.  As  soon  as  the  tgg  becomes  heated  to  the 
proper  temperature,  either  by  contact  with  the  hen's  body  or  by  other 
means,  the  germ  again  resumes  its  course  of  development,  and  if 
kept  under  the  proper  conditions  of  moisture  and  ventilation,  it  will 
continue  to  grow.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  the  germ  cell  con- 
tained a  very  small  chick  and  that  the  process  of  development  was 
simply  enlargement.  It  has  later  been  found  that  the  germ  cell 
contains  no  organs,  and  that  its  only  function  is  to  reproduce  other 
cells  like  itself,  these  in  turn  having  the  same  power  of  reproduction. 
This  reproduction  takes  place  through  division;  each  cell  becomes 
divided  into  two,  each  enlarging  to  the  size  of  the  original  cell,  and 
with  the  same  functions.  The  fertile  egg  germ  can  be  determined 
before  incubation  only  by  breaking  the  tgg  in  a  saucer.  The  fertile 
germ  has  a  clear  outer  rim  or  circle  with  little  white  dots  in  the 
center,  while  an  infertile  germ  is  whitish  in  appearance  and  lacks  the 
clear  outer  rim.  After  about  24  hours  of  incubation,  blood  vessels 
may  be  seen  and  the  heart  commences  to  beat  about  the  twenty- 
seventh  hour,  and  it  commences  to  pulsate  about  the  fortieth  hour. 
The  network  of  blood  vessels  continue  to  grow  until  they  form  a 
complete  membrane  lining  the  shell  membrane.  This  is  called  the 
allantois,  and  its  function  is  to  take  up  the  oxygen  which  penetrates 
the  shell  through  the  pores,  thereby  performing  the  duties  which 
are  to  be  performed  by  the  lungs  about  the  nineteenth  day.  The 
embryo  appears  about  the  second  day  of  incubation.  The  eye,  head, 
neck,  heart  and  wings  are  about  the  first  to  be  distinguishable.  The 
heart  may  be  located  the  third  day,  and  the  embryo  which  has  been 
lying  mouth  downward,  is  turned  on  its  left  side.  On  the  fourth 
day  the  legs  appear;  and  the  lungs  begin  to  be  formed  on  the  fifth, 
but  are  inactive  until  the  nineteenth  day.  Up  to  the  sixth  day,  the 
embryo  has  been  lying  very  still,  but  soon  shows  signs  of  voluntary 
motion.  From  that  time  on  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  including 
the  bill,  legs,  and  wings,  take  their  form,  but  are  soft  until  the  ninth 
day,  when  bone  begins  to  form.  During  the  remaining  days  the 
yolk   becomes   thinner,   the   rapidly   growing   embryo   drawing   very 


HATCHING  THE  EGG.  27 

heavily  upon  it  for  nourishment.  By  the  nineteenth  day  the  chick 
is  fully  formed  and  the  yolk  should  be  nearly  all  taken  into  the  body. 
Very  soon  the  chick  should  break  through  the  air  cell  and  use  its 
lungs  both  to  breathe  and  utter  sounds,  and  by  holding  the  egg  to  a 
tester  the  chick  may  be  seen  pushing  through.  After  the  air  cell  has 
entirely  disappeared  the  shell  will  soon  yield  to  the  interior  force 
and  the  chicken  will  begin  life  in  a  new  world. 

DISTINGUISHING  THE  SEX.— There  is  no  means  by  which 
we  can  distinguish  the  sex  before  incubation.  Neither  is  there  any 
method  of  mating  that  will  govern  the  sex,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  many  claim  that  sex  is  indicated  by  the  shape  of  the  egg,  such  as 
round  eggs  for  pullets,  or  that  the  air  cell,  which  has  a  base  parallel 
to  the  width  of  the  egg,  will  produce  a  cockerel,  while  those  which 
vary  from  this  position  will  produce  pullets. 

POSITION  OF  EGG. — The  position  of  the  egg  during  incuba- 
tion has  some  influence  on  the  development  of  the  embryo.  If  the 
small  end  is  up,  the  head  of  the  chick  will  develop  in  this  end  and 
the  chick  will  be  unable  to  free  itself.  In  natural  incubation  an  egg 
with  the  small  end  up  is  very  rarely  found.  As  the  air  space  increases 
in  size,  the  center  of  gravity  lowers.  In  'this  way  the  large  end  is 
kept  upperrhost  at  different  angles. 

NATURAL  VS.  ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION.— Both  meth- 
ods of  incubation  have  their  points  of  merit  and  -demerit.  The  meth- 
ods that  should  be  used  can  only  be  satisfactorily  decided  by  weighing 
the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each  system  as  they  would  be 
realized  if  employed  by  you.  "A  good  hen  is,  all  things  considered, 
a  better  incubator  than  man  has  yet  invented."  The  old  hen  will 
very  often  hatch  all  the  fertile  eggs  given  her  with  very  little  trouble 
to  the  owner,  but  we  must  consider  that  all  hens  are  not  good  sit- 
ters. Also,  it  is  hard  to  find  enough  hens  to  cover  the  eggs,  if  a 
large  number  are  to  be  set  at  a  time.  Often  the  owner  has  to  search 
the  country  for  broody  hens.  It  is  often  difficult  to  make  them  sit 
in  their  new  quarters.  There  is  also  great  danger  of  breaking  eggs 
in  the  nest  and  smearing  the  remaining  eggs.  The  filthy  condition 
draws  lice  and  the  hen  is  very  often  driven  from  the  nest,  leaving 
the  eggs  to  spoil  before  the  trouble  is  noticed.  It  is  very  difficult 
to  get  sitters  early  in  the  season,  especially  if  the  Winter  is  severe, 
for  the  laying  season  will  be  delayed  somewhat,  and  a  late  broody 
season  will  be  the  consequence.  Yet  in  spite  of  all  these  difficulties 
we  cannot  get  around  the  fact  that  hen-hatched  chickens  have  every 
reason  to  be  perfect,  as  far  as  incubation  is'  concerned.  To  be  certain 
that  the  process  of  incubation  is  not  at  fault  is  enough  to  make  us 
decide  in  favor  of  the  hen  when  only  a  few  chickens  are  to  be  raised 


28  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

each  season.  The  proof  of  the  real  value  of  artificial  incubation  in 
hatching  large  numbers  of  chickens  lies  not  only  in  its  growing  popu- 
larity, but  in  the  great  advantages  and  remarkable  results  obtained, 
if  properly  handled.  To  be  able  to  incubate  eggs  at  any  time,  and 
in  large  numbers,  is  one  of  the  great  advantages  which  does  not 
apply  equally  to  hens.  One  incubator  holding  300  eggs  will  do  more 
work  with  less  trouble  than  20  hens.  It  is  possible  with  machines, 
to  hatch  enough  chickens  in  two  hatches  to  replenish  the  stock  and 
have  chickens  to  sell.  By  starting  the  hatch  early,  it  is  possible  to 
get  out  chickens  before  the  other  fellow's  hens  are  ready  to  sit, 
and  in  this  way  have  the  surplus  cockerels  on  the  market  when  they 
bring  the  best  price.  Artificial  incubation  also  makes  it  possible  to 
develop  practically  non-sitting  strains.  By  breaking  up  the  sitters 
we  are  gradually  doing  away  with  the  broody  instinct.  It  is  said  that 
in  Egypt,  where  hatching  in  ovens  has  been  practiced  for  centuries, 
the  hens  have  entirely  lost  their  desire  to  incubate.  Next  to  these 
valuable  factors  we  must  consider  the  cleanliness  of  incubators.  With 
proper  precautions,  artificially  hatched  chickens  are  absolutely  free 
from  lice,  while  it  is  almost  impossible  to  find  a  broody  hen  that 
isn't  lousy,  the  insects  are  sure  to  get  on  the  small  chickens  just 
when  they  need  vitality  most,  causing  great  mortality  and  unthrifti- 
ness.  Along  with  the  advantages  of  artificial  incubation  comes  the 
disappointments  due  to  carelessness  and  improper  management,  such 
as  overheating  the  eggs,  lack  of  moisture  or  improper  handling. 
There  are  also  unjust  insurance  restrictions.  Insurance  companies 
refuse  to  admit  that  a  building  is  safer  with  a  modern  incubator  in  it 
than  with  the  common  portable  house  lamps. 

ARTIFICIAL  INCUBATION.— Before  installing  incubators, 
one  must  consider  that  the  operator  is  not  relieved  to  any  great 
extent.  The  work  becomes  more  exacting  than  with  hens;  the 
results  depending  very  much  upon  the  operator's  good  sense,  and  a 
great  amount  of  careful,  regular  attention,  even  with  the  best  of  incu- 
bators. Do  not  invest  any  money  in  a  cheaply  constructed  machine. 
There  are  a  great  many  good  machines  on  the  market ;  in  fact  most  of 
the  low-grade  machines  have  been  forced  off  the  market  or  improved. 
When  it  comes  to  capacity,  consider  a  long  time  before  purchasing 
a  small  machine.  Nearly  all  incubator  firms  manufacture  small 
machines,  not  because  they  possess  any  special  merit,  but  because 
some  people  demand  a  small  one  or  none.  There  are  no  great  ad- 
vantages in  buying  a  60  or  65-egg  incubator  for  the  following 
reasons:  First,  a  lamp  that  will  heat  a  machine  of  smaller  size  will 
also  heat  one  of  a  much  larger  capacity.  Second,  the  small  machines 
lack  air  capacity  and  are  more  easily  affected  by  outside  temperature. 


HATCHING  THE  EGG.  29 

Third,  by  the  time  Ihe  second  test  has  been  made  there  are  not 
enough  eggs  left  to  pay  for  the  oil  consumed  and  time  spent  in 
caring  for  them,  and  the  chickens  hatched  would  get  lost  in  a 
fair-sized  brooder.  Incubators  holding  from  100  to  250  eggs  are 
most  commonly  used,  but  a  400-egg  capacity  incubator  will  produce 
just  as  good  results,  with  not  a  great  deal  more  oil,  and  only  a 
little  more  labor.  Some  machines  will  work  well  and  hatch  a  good 
per  cent  of  chickens  under  certain  good  conditions.  The  machine  to 
buy,  however,  is  the  one  that  will  bring  out  all  the  healthy  chicks 
possible,  almost  anywhere  and  at  any  time  with  the  least  possible 
care.  The  value  of  a  machine  should  not  be  measured  by  flashy 
advertisements  but  by  the  results. 

WHAT  TO  EXPECT  OF  AN  INCUBATOR.— The  novice  very 
often  expects  too  much  of  his  machine,  and  is  ready  to  condemn  it 
when  a  few  unhatched  eggs  are  found  on  the  trays  after  the  hatch  is 
completed.  The  fault-finder  must  stop  to  consider  that  when  hens 
hatch  all  the  eggs  they  are  usually  set  on  one  hen's  eggs,  very  often 
stealing  their  nests  and  sitting  on  their  ovv-n  eggs.  These  same  re- 
sults may  be  obtained  in  an  incubator  if  one  will  go  to  the  trouble  of 
using  trap  nests  and  setting  the  eggs  from  each  individual  hen,  sepa- 
rate from  the  others  in  pedigree  trays.  In  this  way  it  will  be 
found  that  many  hens  lay  strictly  hatchable  eggs,  while  the  eggs 
from  other  individuals  will  be  nearly  all  infertile  or  nearly  all  fertile, 
but  too  weak  to  hatch.  Then  remember  that  the  eggs  usually  set  in 
an  incubator  are  a  collection  from  the  whole  flock,  and  on  a  much 
larger  scale  than  those  set  under  a  hen,  and  consequently  the  number 
of  unhatched  eggs  would  increase  accordingly.  We  think  very  little 
of  finding  two,  three,  or  four  unhatched  eggs  under  a  hen,  but  the 
same  per  cent  of  unhatched  eggs  in  an  incubator  seems  destructive. 

INCUBATOR  CELLARS. — Owing  to  fire  insurance  restrictions, 
it  is  best  to  operate  incubators  in  a  building  set  aside  from  the  others. 
They  may  be  run  above  ground  with  some  success,  but  generally 
best  results  are  obtained  under  the  conditions  existing  in  a  well- 
ventilated,  partly-submerged  room.  It  is  much  easier  to  keep  an 
even  temperature  in  such  a  room  than  above  ground,  and  in  warm 
weather  is  much  cooler.  An  ideal  incubator  cellar  should  have  a 
very  high  ceiling,  from  nine  to  10  feet  being  a  good  height.  The 
distance  from  the  floor  to  the  top  of  the  ground  should  be  about 
six  feet,  making  the  room  about  four  feet  above  ground.  The 
windows  should  be  about  seven  feet  from  the  floor.  To  afford  air 
and  water  drainage,  erect  the  building  on  sloping  ground,  havmg 
the  lower  end  of  the  room  above  ground  and  the  end  in  the  slope 
almost  entirely  submerged.     Plenty  of  windows  are  essential,  and  if 


so  THE  BUSINESS  HEM 

made  to  drop  down  from  the  top  they  will  afford  good  ventilation 
as  well  as  light.  The  windovv^s  may  be  shaded  on  bright  days  if  the 
sunlight  affects  the  temperature. 

DISINFECTING. — Each  time  before  putting  in  the  eggs,  the 
machine  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  disinfected  and  aired.  The 
lamp  should  be  started  and  the  machine  kept  closed  for  a  day  or  so, 
then  the  incubator  doors  should  be  opened  until  it  is  well  dried  out 
and  odorless.  To  disinfect  properly,  remove  all  diaphragms  and 
trays,  give  them  a  good  washing  or  spraying  with  some  good  disin- 
fectant and  put  them  out  in  the  sun  to  dry.  Then  spray  the  inside 
of  the  machine  in  the  same  way.  Leave  the  trays  and  diaphragms 
out  until  the  machine  is  thoroughly  dry.  Caution:  Never  use 
kerosene  oil  in  an  incubator.  If  the  operator  is  not  careful,  about 
as  much  harm  can  be  done  by  disinfecting  as  without  it.  An  oily 
machine,  or  the  odor  from  a  strong  disinfectant,  is  fatal  to  embryo 
chicks.  Nevertheless,  it  is  essential  to  use  some  disinfectant.  There 
are  several  good  liquids,  but  a  weak  solution  of  creolin,  or  five  per 
cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  which  is  one  part  carbolic  acid  to  19 
parts  water,  will  kill  all  bad  odors  and  is  also  a  germicide.  The 
necessity  of  using  only  thoroughly  disinfected  machines  is  shown  by 
experiments  tried  by  Dr.  Jones,  of  the  New  York  State  Veterinary 
College,  Cornell  University,  in  Vv^hich  it  was  found  that  the  germs 
of  white  diarrhoea  reached  the  incubator  from  the  egg  shell.  There 
is  also  some  danger  of  lice  reaching  the  machine  in  the  same  way. 

REGULATING. — The  operator  must  remember  that  he  is  to  do 
the  thinking.  Most  machines  are  self-regulating  to  some  extent,  but 
a  severe  change  in  the  weather  will  be  likely  to  change  the  tempera- 
ture in  the  machine  unless  the  operator  looks  after  the  lamp  flame. 
The  thumb  screw  attached  to  the  regulator  should  be  screwed  down 
until  the  temperature  is  kept  at  the  proper  degree,  with  the  disk 
raised  a  third  of  an  inch  above  the  heater.  After  the  machine  is 
regulated  it  will  be  necessary  to  change  the  regulator  only  slightly, 
except  in  rare  instances.  The  less  you  change  the  thumb  screw  after 
once  it  is  regulated  to  run  with  slight  variations  at  the  proper  degree, 
the  better  hatch  you  will  get.  Remember  that  raising  the  disk  over 
the  heater  lowers  the  temperature  and  lowering  it  raises  the  tem- 
perature. Never  put  the  eggs  into  the  machine  until  it  is  correctly 
regulated. 

FILLING  THE  TRAYS.— After  the  machine  is  heated  and  reg- 
ulated to  the  proper  temperature  and  thoroughly  dried,  remove  the 
egg  trays  and  fill  them  with  the  selected  eggs.  The  trays  may  be  filled 
full  if  necessary,  but  it  is  not  wise  to  place  the  eggs  on  top  of  each 


HATCHING  THE  EGG.  31 

other.  Before  putting  the  eggs  in  the  machine  see  that  the  ventilators 
are  arranged  according  to  directions  sent  out  with  the  machine.  After 
the  trays  are  placed  keep  the  machine  closed  until  the  next  day, 
when  turning  should  commence. 

CLEANING  AND  OPERATING  LAMP.— The  lamp  should  be 
filled  once  a  day,  each  morning  preferred.  When  tilled  in  the  morning 
the  operator  has  time  to  get  the  flame  regulated  before  leaving  for  the 
night.  Otherwise  the  flame  may  run  up  and  smoke  the  heater  after 
being  newly  trimmed,  especially  if  a  new  wick  is  used.  The  lamp 
should  never  be  tilled  quite  full.  The  charred  portion  of  the  wick 
is  easily  removed  by  drawing  a  burnt  match  or  a  knife  across  the 
wick  tube.  Never  cut  away  the  unburnt  portions  of  the  wick.  This 
method  of  trimming  makes  it  harder  to  get  an  even  flame  and  uses 
up  the  wick  very  soon.  After  the  wick  has  been  trimmed  turn  it 
down  and  clean  the  wick  tube  and  other  parts  of  the  burner.  This 
can  be  done  with  a  knife  or  piece  of  sandpaper  and  then  wiped  off 
with  a  cloth.  The  burner  should  always  be  kept  bright  and  the 
screen  around  the  wick  tube  should  be  kept  free  from  dirt.  Always 
wipe  the  lamp  thoroughly  before  replacing.  It  is  best  to  keep  a 
comparatively  low  flame  at  first  until  the  operator  becomes  accus- 
tomed to  the  work.  The  flame  will  always  increase  instead  of  dimin- 
ish after  the  wick  is  trimmed.  After  the  operator  becomes  familiar 
with  the  lamp,  the  flame  should  be  run  high  enough  to  keep  disk 
slightly  raised  over  the  heater  during  the  day.  Then  if  the  night  is 
cold  you  have  an  extra  supply  of  heat  ready  to  be  used.  Otherwise 
the  temperature  in  the  machine  will  lower.  The  flame  should  never 
flicker.  If  it  does  there  is  something  wrong,  and  the  operator  may 
look  for  a  broken  isinglass  in  the  heater  or  a  disarranged  screen  in 
the  burner,  or  perhaps  a  draught.  Use  only  high-grade  oil  in  incu- 
bator lamps. 

THERMOMETER. — Always  use  the  make  of  thermometer  sent 
out  with  the  machine  you  are  using.  It  is  well  to  test  the  thermome- 
ter each  season.  This  can  be  done  by  placing  a  doctor's  thermometer  in 
a  basin  of  warm  water  with  the  one  you  intend  to  use.  The  water 
should  register  at  least  100°  F.  and  the  thermometer  should  be  held 
upright  with  the  bulb  submerged.  If  the  incubator  thermometer 
registers  incorrectly,  the  difference  may  be  marked  on  the  metal  part 
of  the  thermometer  or  on  a  tag  fastened  to  it.  Be  sure  your  ther- 
mometer rests  in  the  proper  position  in  the  machine  according  to 
directions  sent  out  by  the  incubator  manufacturers.  In  case  the 
mercury  becomes  separated,  take  hold  at  the  top  of  the  thermometer 
and  swing  the  bulb  end  downward  with  a  jerk  until  the  mercury 
^oroes  together. 


32  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

TEMPERATURE. — With  machines  where  the  thermometer  hangs 
above  the  eggs  it  is  advisable  to  keep  the  temperature  as  near  102J/2° 
the  first  week  as  possible,  103°  the  second  week,  with  a  gradual 
increase  to  104°  after  the  nineteenth  day.  In  machines  using  a  con- 
tact thermometer,  102°  is  sufficient  for  the  first  week,  103°  the  second, 
with  a  gradual  increase  to  104°  at  the  latter  end  of  the  third  week. 
The  temperature  should  be  allowed  to  increase  gradually  to  the  proper 
degree,  and  should  be  kept  as  near  there  as  possible.  However,  a  slight 
variation  may  be  expected,  and  without  injuring  the  eggs.  Good 
hatches  have  been  obtained  when  the  mercury  has  run  up  to  110°  F. 
for  a  short  time.  There  is  more  danger  of  injury  from  a  high  tem- 
perature at  the  beginning  of  incubation  than  toward  the  last,  owing 
to  the  very  delicate  blood  vessels  which  are  being  formed  the  first 
few  days,  and  are  very  easily  injured  by  excessive  heat.  For  best 
results,  the  temperature  should  never  exceed  106°F.,  and  this  only  at 
hatching  time.  In  case  the  mercury  rises  to  106°  at  any  other  time 
than  at  hatching,  it  would  be  better  to  take  out  the  lamp  or  open  the 
door  for  a  while  than  to  chance  the  regulator.  The  temperature  will 
always  drop  on  opening  the  machine  door  to  remove  the  trays,  and 
will  remain  low  for  some  time  after  the  eggs  are  replaced,  but  do  not 
change  the  regulator,  as  the  mercury  will  reach  the  proper  degree 
in  due  time.  At  hatching  time  the  operator  should  watch  the  ther- 
mometer carefully.  The  heat  from  the  chicks  will  usually  raise  the 
temperature  to  104°  if  there  are  enough  eggs  containing  live  chicks. 
If  not,  the  lamp  flame  should  be  turned  up  a  little.  When  the 
chicks  start  to  break  through  the  shell,  the  temperature  will  very 
often  rise  to  extreme  height.  If  the  chicks  seem  to  be  suffering  from 
the  excessive  heat,  the  lamp  flame  should  be  turned  down  until  the 
temperature  lowers  somewhat.  If  the  heat  still  remains  too  high, 
the  lamp  may  be  removed  for  a  time.  Very  often  the  heat  will 
remain  high  with  the  lamp  out  for  several  hours.  If  the  chickens 
pant  when  the  temperature  is  only  105°  there  is  no  need  to  worry, 
as  this  will  not  injure  them.  As  soon  as  the  hatch  has  passed  its 
best  and  the  number  of  chicks  hatched  per  minute  is  gradually  de- 
creasing, the  temperature  will  drop,  sometimes  very  rapidly.  This 
is  a  critical  period,  and  the  operator  should  be  on  hand  to  turn  up 
the  flame.  Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  turn  the  thumb  screw  until 
the  disk  drops  down  on  the  heater.  Otherwise  the  mercury  will 
drop  down  to  100°  F.  or  a  little  lower,  and  the  chickens  that  are  a 
little  late  in  pipping,  will  be  unable  to  hatch. 

MOISTURE  AND  VENTILATION.— Correct  moisture,  evap- 
oration, circulation,  and  ventilation  are  the  very  important  factors  of 
incubation  and  all  are  too  closely  linked  together  to  be  considered 


HATCHING  THE  EGG.  33 

apart  from  each  other.  Proper  ventilation  is  as  necessary  as  moisture, 
but  we  cannot  have  excessive  circulation  without  too  much  evaporation. 
Too  great  a  change  of  air  absorbs  the  moisture  in  the  egg  too  rapidly 
for  successful  development  of  the  embryo.  The  result  of  incubation 
under  such  conditions  would  be  a  few  small,  weak  chickens  and  a 
large  per  cent  of  urihatched  eggs.  Yet  a  deficient  supply  of  air 
would  be  disastrous.  Evaporation  of  the  ^gg  contents  should  be 
greatest  toward  the  latter  part  of  incubation,  with  a  small  amount 
of  evaporation  at  first.  To  obtain  these  conditions  we  must  have  very 
little  ventilation  the  first  few  days.  This  makes  it  plain  that  moisture 
is  as  necessary  at  the  beginning  as  at  the  close  of  the  incubation 
period.  Eggs  v/ill  stand  a  great  amount  of  moisture  and  hatch  well. 
The  best  of  hatches  will  be  accompanied  by  more  or  less  moisture  on 
the  glass  and  door  of  the  incubator.  Very  often  the  glass  will  be 
so  wet  that  it  will  be  impossible  to  read  the  thermometer  for  some 
time.  Evaporation  of  the  hen's  egg  will  be  about  16  per  cent  of  its 
weight  before  incubation,  but  the  amount  of  evaporation  varies  so 
much  that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  determine  just  how  much  evapora- 
tion should  take  place.  However,  the  amount  of  m^oisture,  ventila- 
tion, and  cooling  necessary  for  correct  evaporation  can  be  deter- 
mined to  some  extent  by  noting  the  size  of  the  air  cells  and  testing 
the  eggs.  Most  incubator  companies  send  complete  directions  for 
supplying  moisture  and  operating  the  ventilators.  Follow  these 
directions  closely.  Only  operators  with  thorough  understanding 
of  incubation  and  its  laws  should  depart  from  the  rules  laid  down 
by  the  manufacturers.  However,  there  is  no  set  of  rules  that  will 
fit  the  needs  of  incubation  in  every  locality  without  some  altera- 
tions ;  but  the  general  principles  should  always  be  followed.  A 
general  plan  is  to  keep  the  ventilation  restricted  for  the  first  few 
days  of  incubation,  and  gradually  increase  it  from  day  to  day  there- 
after. There  are  good  machines  in  which  ventilation  is  controlled 
by  the  machine  itself.  With  these,  there  is  no  need  for  worry  on 
the  part  of  the  operator  as  long  as  he  does  not  tamper  with  the 
ventilators.  It  is  generally  considered  advisable  where  the  ventila- 
tion is  controlled  by  slides,  to  close  the  ventilators  at  pipping  time 
and  leave  them  so  until  the  hatch  is  completed.  As  moisture  helps 
to  control  evaporation,  it  is  just  as  essential  when  the  eggs  are 
first  put  into  the  machine,  and  we  are  trying  to  prevent  more  than 
a  gradual  amount  of  evaporation  taking  place,  as  it  is  at  a  later 
stage  of  development.  When  using  a  sand  tray  machine  keep  the 
sand  wet  at  all  times  from  start  until  finish.  If  hatching  in  cold 
weather,  use  warm  water  to  replenish  the  supply.  If  you  are 
using    a    non-moisture    machine    you    must    consider    the    weather 


34  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

conditions  and  the  humidity  of  the  air  in  the  room  your  incubator 
is  in,  before  supplying  moisture.  If  it  is  a  very  dry  place  it  is 
best  to  keep  the  floor  of  the  room  wet.  Or  if  in  a  living  room, 
place  pans  of  water  under  the  machine.  Use  water  in  the  machine 
only  as  a  last  resort. 

TURNING  THE  EGGS. — The  objects  in  turning  eggs  during  in- 
cubation, are,  first,  to  keep  the  germ  from  drying  fast  to  the  shell, 
also  to  equalize  the  heat  units  by  changing  the  position  on  the 
tray,  it  being  impossible  to  supply  the  same  amount  of  heat  to 
each  egg  on  the  tray  at  the  same  time.  Operators  vary  in  opinion 
as  to  the  proper  time  to  commence  turning,  but  the  writer's  rule 
is  to  turn  the  second  day  of  incubation,  and  continue  turning,  twice 
daily  up  to  the  nineteenth  day,  and  as  near  12  hours  apart  as  possi- 
ble. As  the  most  important  factor  in  turning  eggs  is  to  keep  the 
germ  from  drying  to  the  shell  we  only  do  them  justice  by  giving 
them  a  good  thorough  rolling  around.  Do  not  be  particular  about 
turning  them  just  half  way  over,  as  old  operators  believed.  If 
there  is  a  tendency  to  dry  in  the  shell  a  careful  half  way  turn 
would  be  of  little  value.  Shuffle  them  around  on  the  tray  with  the 
palms  of  the  hand  as  though  you  were  mixing  up  dominoes,  avoid- 
ing sudden  jerks.  If  there  is  only  one  tray  in  the  machine  write 
"^Morning"  one  one  end  of  the  tray  and  "Night"  on  the  other. 
Then  see  that  the  end  marked  "Morning"  is  out  at  morning  turn- 
ing and  the  reverse  at  night.  If  there  are  two  trays  change  them 
from  one  side  of  the  machine  to  the  other  in  the  morning  and 
change  ends  at  night.  In  this  way  you  are  aiding  in  distribution 
of  equal  heat  units  to  all  the  eggs  in  the  machine. 

THE  NECESSITY  OF  COOLING.— There  is  some  disagreement 
among  authorities  as  to  the  proper  value  of  cooling  eggs  during 
incubation,  although  it  may  be  possible  to  secure  fair  hatches 
in  some  incubators  without  paying  much  attention  to  airing.  In 
most  cases  it  is  a  great  deal  better  to  use  a  good  common  sense 
system  of  cooling.  In  natural  incubation  eggs  receive  more  or  less 
cooling.  The  hen,  if  allowed  her  liberty,  in  most  instances  remains 
on  the  nest  for  the  first  few  days  and  then  leaves  her  nest  for  a 
very  short  time  each  day,  early  in  the  incubation  period,  increasing 
the  length  of  time  off  the  nest  as  the  hatch  advances.  The  number 
of  times  the  hen  leaves  the  nest  varies  with  individual  hens  and 
the  weather  conditions.  We  are  led  to  believe  that  the  hen  leaves 
the  nest  not  only  in  search  of  food  and  recreation,  but  to  aid  in 
the  development  of  the  chick  within  the  shell.  The  result  of  the 
proper  amount  of  airing  would  be  the  giving  off  of  bad  odors 
which  would  naturally  collect  and  the  taking  in  of  a  new  supply 


HATCHING  THE  EGG.  35 

of  fresh  air  which  v/ould  assist  in  evaporating  the  tgg  contents. 
As  the  ventilation  the  eggs  receive  in  artificial  incubation  is  crude 
compared  to  natural  methods,  it  is  all  the  more  necessary  that  a 
system  of  airing  be  followed  out  as  near  to  the  natural  process 
as  possible. 

COOLING  DIRECTIONS.— As  the  eggs  receive  sufficient  cooling 
the  first  week  during  the  process  of  turning,  it  is  not  advisable  to  give 
it  further  attention  until  the  seventh  day,  especially  in  cold  weather. 
It  would  be  impossible  to  form  a  set  of  rules  for  cooling  which 
could  be  satisfactorily  used  with  all  machines,  and  under  the  various 
weather  conditions.  The  length  of  time  to  cool  must  rest  very 
much  with  the  operator's  good  judgment.  Never  use  your  watch, 
as  this  system  is  too  mechanical  to  meet  the  changing  conditions. 
The  most  satisfactory  way  is  to  go  entirely  by  feeling  of  the  eggs 
and  the  num.ber  of  days  they  have  been  incubating.  When  properly 
cooled  they  will  feel  quite  cool,  but  not  void  of  warmth  when 
brought  in  contact  with  the  face  or  eye.  The  first  few  days  after 
extra  cooling  is  commenced,  it  will  take  only  a  few  minutes, 
perhaps  three  or  five  or  even  10  to  cool  them  properly.  The  length 
of  time  will  increase  as  the  development  of  the  embryo  progresses. 
By  the  end  of  the  second  week  of  incubation  the  live  embryo  will 
supply  such  an  amount  of  animal  heat  that  it  will  take  some  min- 
utes to  cool  them  sufiiciently,  and  toward  the  eighteenth  day  if  it 
is  warm  weather  the  operator  will  be  almost  afraid  to  leave  them 
out  so  long.  Very  often  in  warm  weather  it  will  take  from  30  to  60 
minutes  to  cool  them  properly.  If  the  weather  is  cold,  the  hatch 
would  be  ruined  by  such  treatment.  Always  consider  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  room  and  never  expose  eggs  long  in  a  very  cold  room 
while  they  are  undergoing  the  process  of  incubation.  There  can 
be  some  dependence  placed  on  the  size  of  the  air  cells  at  different 
periods  of  incubation.  Although  the  size  of  the  air  cell  in  two 
certain  eggs  may  differ  greatly  at  the  same  period  of  incubation 
and  under  the  same  condition,  a  degree  of  uniformity  will  be  found 
if  a  number  are  examined.  By  testing  the  eggs  at  frequent  inter- 
vals that  are  being  incubated  by  a  hen,  it  is  possible  to  get  a  good 
idea  about  the  size  of  the  air  cell ;  compare  these  with  those  in  the 
incubator  if  set  at  the  same  time.  If,  after  cooling  for  a  week 
or  more,  the  eggs  in  the  machine  show  air  cells  much  larger  than 
those  under  the  hen,  and  you  have  been  following  the  incubator 
directions  in  regard  to  moisture  and  ventilation,  you  may  feel  quite 
certain  that  you  have  cooled  them  too  much  and  the  tgg  contents 
have  dried  down  too  rapidly;  if  much  smaller,  you  should  air 
them  longer.     The  eggs  can  be  successfully  cooled  on  top  of  the 


36  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

machine  or  by  dropping  the  doors  down  and  leaving  the  eggs  in 
unless  you  are  using  an  incubator  containing  a  sand  tray.  With 
such  a  machine  it  is  best  to  put  the  tgg  tray  on  top  and  close  the 
doors  unless  it  is  very  warm  weather.  A.  number  of  trays  of  eggs 
can  be  cooled  at  the  same  time  by  taking  them  out  or  dropping  the 
doors  down  before  commencing  to  turn  the  eggs,  if  you  are  sure 
you  can  finish  turning  them  before  they  are  too  cool.  To  be  sure 
no  mistake  is  made,  you  should  try  only  two  or  three  machines  at 
a  time,  at  first,  and  increase  the  number  as  the  eggs  take  more 
cooling.  In  this  way  a  great  amount  of  time  can  be  saved,  espe- 
cially if  you  are  handling  several  hundred  eggs.  If  only  two  or 
three  machines  are  set  at  a  time,  cool  only  these  at  a  time  unless 
you  are  very  familiar  with  your  work  and  can  handle  several 
batches  of  eggs  without  an  error. 

TESTING  EGGS. — To  learn  the  per  cent  of  fertility  and  strength 
of  the  germs  is  not  the  only  object  in  testing  eggs.  B}^  removing 
the  infertile  and  dead  germs  there  is  more  room  for  the  strong 
germs  and  the  machine  is  more  easily  kept  free  from  bad  odors. 
The  infertile  eggs  may  be  used  for  cooking  purposes.  Unless  a 
dark  room  is  handy,  it  is  best  to  do  the  testing  in  the  evening. 
Never  allow  draughts  in  the  room  while  the  testing  is  being  done. 
If  it  is  cold,  the  eggs  should  be  kept  covered,  and  the  work  done 
as  rapidly  as  possible.  Eggs  may  be  satisfactorily  tested  in  sunlight 
by  hanging  a  dark  cloth  over  the  window  with  a  round  hole  cut  in 
it  a  little  smaller  than  an  ordinary  tgg.  If  a  large  number  of  eggs 
are  to  be  tested  care  should  be  exercised  in  locating  the  tester.  If  not 
:at  the  proper  height  it  will  become  tiresome  to  hold  the  arm  extended 
toward  the  tester.  It  may  be  found  convenient  to  have  the  tray  of  eggs 
at  the  left  of  the  tester,  and  in  front  of  the  operator.  There  should  be 
an  empty  tray  at  the  right  on  which  to  put  the  eggs  which  prove  satis- 
factory. There  should  also  be  two  small  baskets  handy,  one  for 
infertile,  and  one  for  dead  germs.  The  person  doing  the  testing 
should  stand  a  little  to  one  side  of  the  tester  so  that  the  right  hand 
is  directly  in  front  of  it.  In  this  way  it  is  much  easier  for  the 
eyes  if  looking  directly  into  the  light.  Take  three  eggs  at  a  time 
with  the  left  hand  and  pass  them  to  the  right  one  at  a  time.  Hold 
them  before  the  tester  in  the  right  hand,  large  end  up.  As  the  eggs 
are  tested,  hold  the  good  ones  in  the  hand  and  place  those  con- 
taining dead  germs  or  that  are  infertile  in  their  proper  place.  As 
each  handful  is  tested  place  the  good  ones  on  the  empty  tray 
and  take  three  more  with  the  left  hand.  In  this  way  a  great 
many  eggs  can  be  successfully  tested  in  a  short  time  without 
breaking   them.     The   first  test   should   be   made   the   seventh   day. 


HATCHING  THE  EGG. 


37 


White  eggs  may  be  tested  the  fourth  or  fifth  day,  but  there  are 
generally  weak  germs  which  do  not  die  until  the  sixth  or  seventh 
day,  and  if  testing  is  done  earlier,  these  remain  until  the  second 
test.  At  first  test  an  infertile  egg  is  distinguished  by  a  small  dark 
spot  with  spider-like  veins  branching  from  it  in  different  direc- 
tions. This  is  the  embryo.  If  the  embryo  is  living,  it  will  be  mov- 
able. A  small  stationary  dark  spot,  without  the  blood  vessels,  is  a 
dead  germ,  stuck  to  the  shell.  Other  indications  of  the  dead  germ 
are  blood  rings.  These  indicate  a  hemorrhage.  A  dead  embryo 
sometimes  floats  about  in  the  white  of  the  egg.  If  the  egg  con- 
tents appear  cloudy,  with  no  indications  of  life,  the  germ  has  started 
and  died.  Perfectly  clear  eggs  are  infertile.  With  proper  condi- 
tions of  moisture  and  ventilation,  the  air  cell  in  the  large  end  of 
the  egg  will  not  be  much  larger  than  in  an  unincubated  egg,  if  the 
testing  is  done  on  the  seventh  day  or  before.  The  usual  time  for 
the   second  test  is   on   or  about   the    fourteenth   day   of   incubation. 


By  this  time  the  embryo  should  be  so  far  developed  that  the  space 
between  the  air  cell  and  the  embryo  should  be  very  firm  and  dis- 
tinct, the  air  cell  being  much  larger  than  at  first  test.  The 
embryo  will  very  often  move  about  when  held  to  the  light.  If 
only  partial  development  has  taken  place  and  the  division  between 
the  air  cell  and  the  chick  is  very  dim,  the  egg  is  usually  worth- 
less. The  above  drawings  were  made  from  eggs  which  had  just 
completed  the  first  seven  days  of  incubation.  Nos.  1,  2  and  3  rep- 
resent live  genns.  Nos.  4,  5  and  6  represent  dead  germs.  No.  1 
shows  a  weak  germ,  with  a  few  blood  vessels  branching  from  it; 
the  rest  of  the  egg  being  very  clear  and  the  lowest  end  of  the  yolk 
is  easily  seen  in  the  small  end  of  the  egg.  No.  2  shows  a  strong 
germ  with  a  net  work  of  blood  vessels  surrounding  it.  No.  3  is 
the  same  egg  turned  half  way  around.  The  germ  is  not  visible. 
No.  4  shows  a  dead  germ  stuck  to  the  shell  with  a  blood  ring 
around  it,  the  blood  settled  in  this  way  from  the  burst  vessels. 
No.  5  represents  an  egg  which  once  had  life.  A  blood  clot  is  visible 
near  the  air  .cell.     No   6   shows   a  floating  dead   germ   and  blood 


S8  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

clot,  also  a  misplaced  air  cell.     Eggs  Vv^ith  air  cells  in  such  a  posi- 
tion often  hatch. 

THE  HATCH. — Before  the  chick  commences  to  pip  the  shell, 
the  operator  should  arrange  the  ventilators  according  to  direc- 
tions, also  arrange  the  trays  so  the  chicks  will  drop  into  the 
nursery  as  they  come  toward  the  light.  If  pedigree  trays  are  to 
be  used,  they  should  be  placed  the  eighteenth  day,  after  which  the 
machine  should  be  kept  closed  until  the  hatch  is  finished.  If  the 
warm  air  is  allowed  to  escape,  the  cold  air  rushes  in  chilling  the 
chicks.  As  soon  as  the  hatch  is  completed,  the  Q.gg  trays  should 
be  removed  and  the  ventilators  opened  full  width.  After  the 
chickens  have  dried  off  thoroughly,  the  door  can  be  fastened 
open  about  a  half  inch  at  the  top  unless  the  weather  is  too  cold. 
The  chickens  should  rednain  in  the  nursery  until  the  afternoon 
of  the  twenty-second  day,  then  they  can  be  removed  to  the 
brooder.  The  trays,  nursery  drawers,  if  any,  and  the  felt  or  burlap 
diaphragm  should  be  removed  and  given  a  thorough  scraping  and 
then  scrubbed  with  a  stiff  brush,  using  warm  water  or  hot  soap 
and  water.  The  disinfectant  may  be  mixed  in  this  or  supplied 
later  with  a  spray  pump.  After  disinfecting,  the  removable  parts 
should  be  placed  in  the  sun  to  dry.  If  more  hatching  is  to  be  done 
the  lamp  may  be  left  in  and  the  eggs  may  be  put  on  the  trays 
as  soon  as  the  machine  is  thoroughly  dried  and  aired.  If  no  more 
eggs  are  to  be  incubated,  close  the  machine  and  empty  the  oil 
out  of  the  lamp.  This  will  prevent  the  evaporation  of  oil  into  the 
heater,  causing  the  lamp  to  smoke  badly  when  relighted. 

NATURAL  INCUBATION.— Not  all  hens  make  good  sitters. 

Nervous  or  ugly  hens  will  make  poor  work  of  hatching  and  will  doubt- 
less trample  on  some  of  the  chicks  before  they  are  strong  enough 
to  get  out  of  the  way.  The  best  sitters  are  generally  of  the 
general-purpose  breeds.  The  hen,  if  allowed  to  choose  her  nesting 
place,  will  often  find  some  secluded  spot  in  a  heavy  growth  of 
grass  or  weeds.  Under  such  conditions  perfect  hatches  are  often 
obtained,  and  it  is  customary  to  make  the  conditions  as  near  as 
possible  like  those.  A  piece  of  sod  placed  in  the  nest  can  easily 
be  shaped  to  conform  with  the  hen's  body.  This  should  be  covered 
with  leaves,  hay  or  short  straw.  The  nest  should  not  be  placed 
where  the  hen  will  have  to  fly  to  and  from  it,  and  should  not  be 
so  deep  that  she  will  have  to  jump  down  on  the  eggs  when 
returning;  but  deep  enough  to  prevent  the  young  chicks  from 
leaving  the  nest.  Sitters  should  be  placed  where  the  other  hens 
cannot  lay  to  them.     If  many  are  to  be  set  at  a  time,  it  is  best 


HATCHING  THE  EGG.  39 

to  use  a  separate  building  or  pen  if  one  is  available.  If  not,  sev- 
eral small  coops  can  be  constructed  with  run-ways  attached.  These 
coops  should  contain  a  large,  roomy  nest,  also  a  place  for  the  hen 
to  dust  in  during  stormy  weather ;  and  they  should  be  high,  afford- 
ing plenty  of  air  space.  A  common  board  roof  is  better  than  tin 
or  tar  paper,  for  such  a  coop,  as  it  does  not  draw  heat  so  easily. 
Before  setting  the  hen,  give  her  a  good  thorough  dusting  with  lice 
powder,  then  sift  some  powder  into  the  nest.  The  hen  should  be 
allowed  to  sit  on  china  eggs  for  a  few  days  before  putting  good 
eggs  under  her,  especially  if  she  is  m.oved  from  her  usual  resting 
place.  Do  not  use  rotten  eggs  to  start  the  hen  with ;  they  are 
easily  broken  and  are  more  or  less  filthy,  at  best.  The  eggs  may 
be  tested  the  seventh  day,  and  all  clear  eggs  and  dead  germs 
removed.  In  this  way  one  hen  will  often  cover  two  hen's  eggs,  and 
the  other  may  be  broken  up  or  given  a  fresh  lot  of  eggs. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


BROODING. 

"Dwelling  on,  with  anxiety." — Webster. 

The  rock  that  wrecks  more  poultrymen  than  all  else,  is  raising 
the  necessary  young  stock.  In  other  words,  more  people  get  dis- 
couraged, give  it  up  and  go  out  of  the  business  because  they  cannot 
raise  enough  chicks  to  keep  their  flock  up  as  it  should.  The  trouble 
is  not  in  hatching  the  eggs,  but  in  rearing  the  chick  after  it  is 
hatched.  There  are  a  good  many  incubators  made  that  will,  if  given 
good  fertile  eggs,  hatch  a  large  per  cent  of  strong  chicks.  We  never 
worry  over  the  hatching  part.  The  machines  are  in  a  cellar  where 
there  is  a  fairly  even  temperature,  and  they  are  bunched  so  it  is 
easy  to  care  for  them.  But  after  the  hatching  come  entirely  different 
circumstances.     The   chicks   are   taken   to   small   brooders   that   are 


SMALL  OUTDOOR  BROODER. 
Fig.  4. 


COLONY  BROODER-HOUSE. 
Fig.  5. 


scattered  around  an  acre  of  land,  or  else  taken  to  the  long  pipe 
brooder-house,  and  now  their  troubles  commence. 

In  the  small  outdoor  brooder  we  have  instead  of  the  even  tem- 
perature of  the  incubator  cellar,  a  variation,  50°  to  75°  between  noon 
and  midnight,  and  we  have  to  guard  against  getting  them  too  hot 
and  weakening  the  chicks  or  having  them  get  chilled,  v/hich  is  still 
worse  for  them. 

The  small  outdoor  brooder  is  an  ideal  way  to  raise  healthy 
chicks,  if  anyone  has  time  to  attend  to  them  properly.  The  great 
trouble  is,  it  takes  so  many  brooders  and  so  much  running  around 
to  care  for  many  chicks  that  way,  and  in  stormy  v/eather  it  is  almost 
out  of  the  question  to  give  the  chicks  the  proper  care.  Anyone  down 
on  his  knees  behind  one  of  these  little  brooders  in  a  driving  rain- 


BROODING. 


41 


storm  trying  to  fix  the  lamp,  knows  what  trouble  means.  Now  the 
other  extreme  is  the  long  pipe  brooder-house,  which  is  the  easiest 
way  to  care  for  little  chicks,  for  you  can  work  inside,  storms  cease 
to  worry,  and  the  temperature  is  more  even ;  the  chicks  are  not  likely 
to  get  chilled,  and  they  are  together  where  you  can  care  for  them 
handily.  But  because  the  chicks  are  together  there  is  much  greater 
danger  of  disease  spreading  among  them. 

The  runs  soon  get  foul,  and  unless  the  surface  soil  is  changed 
in  the  runs  some  way  they  become  a  menace,  and  in  a  few  years  a 
brooder  house  is  "to  let" ;  some  one  has  gone  out  of  the  business, 
or  else  there  is  a  fire  and  an  expensive  plant  goes  up  in  smoke.  These 
are  the  extremes,  and  I  would  advise  neither  of  them  for  the  best 
results.  We  come  naturally  to  the  colony  house  brooder,  as  some- 
thing large  enough  to  accommodate  150  to  200  chicks,  where  the 
caretaker  can  get  inside  and  so  care  for  them  during  severe  storms. 


LARGE  BROODER-HOUSE.    Fig.  6. 

yet  not  so  large  that  they  cannot  be  readily  moved  to  new  ground 
each  year.  The  colony-house  brooder  system  has  been  very  care- 
fully worked  out  at  Cornell  University,  which  has  given  us  the 
Cornell  A  type  brooder. 

When  Prof.  James  E.  Rice  took  charge  of  the  poultry  depart- 
ment at  Cornell  he  carried  with  him  the  idea  of  the  gasoline-heated 
colony-house  brooder  which  they  had  been  building  and  using  on 
their  plant  at  Yorktown.  Mr.  White  is  still  using  one  of  the  houses 
built  when  Prof.  Rice  was  on  the  farm,  and  has  the  best  of  success 
rearing  chicks  in  them.  There  are  certain  necessities  which  must  be 
provided  the  chick  in  the  brooder  which  we  never  worry  about  when 
the  hen  is  caring  for  them.  First  is  heat  from  some  source,  either 
steam,  hot  water,  hot  air,  or  from  their  own  bodies,  as  in  the  tiny 
fireless  brooders.  The  proper  temperature  for  the  baby  chick  is  from 
90  to  100  degrees,  and  the  brooder  that  will  always  give  100°  at  its 


42 


THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 


warmest  place  is  right  in  this  particular.  Along  with  the  right  tem- 
perature must  be  fresh  air,  which  should  be  supplied  freely,  but  never 
must  cold  air  or  a  draft  be  allowed  to  strike  the  chicken.  Plenty 
of  exercise  must  be  provided,  which  can  be  done  by  feeding  in  the 
fine  litter  on  the  floor  of  the  brooder  so  the  little  fellows  must 
scratch  for  their  living.     Chicks  running  with  the  hen  get  too  much 


COLONY  OF  HOUSES. 


exercise  unless  the  hen  is  confined  part  of  each  day.  But  the  average 
brooder  caretaker  seems  to  think  that  as  long  as  the  chick  eats 
well  and  does  not  "holler"  he  is  all  right;  then  when  the  chick  goes 
off  his  feet,  he  will  lay  it  to  the  brooder,  forgetting  that  no  brooder 
can  know  more  than  the  one  caring  for  it. 

Some  advantages  of  this  Cornell  gasoline-heated  colony  brooder 
house  are  that  it  gives  plenty  of  pure  air,  without  drafts ;  provides 


ll^tuw 


SIDE  VIEW  BROODER-HOUSE.    Fig.  8.        SECTIONAL  VIEW.    Fig.  9. 

proper  temperature,  plenty  of  sunlight,  a  place  for  the  chicks  to 
exercise,  and  is  roomy  for  the  attendant.  The  building  is  eight  feet 
square  inside,  side  walls  two  feet,  and  is  six  feet  from  floor  to  top 
of  ridge  board.  When  intended  to  be  movable,  it  should  be  set 
on  sills  2xl2-inch,  beveled  at  the  ends  to  be  used  as  runners.  The 
four  floor  joists  are  2x4's,  halved  into  the  runners,  making  a  strong 


BRCODING. 


43 


frame  that  will  hold  its  shape  when  hauled.  A  double  floor  is  best, 
the  first  being  of  rough  material  laid  diagonally  as  a  brace.  On  this 
is  put  building  paper,  and  the  top  floor  of  matched  dressed  lumber 
is  laid  on  this.  Studding,  2x2  inch,  is  toe-nailed  to  floor  flush  with 
edge  and  plates  are  nailed  to  top  of  the  studding. 

Figs.  8  and  9  (from  Cornell  Bulletin,  277)  show  sectional 
and  side  views  of  this  brooder-house,  and  Figs.  10  and  12  give 
vertical  and  ground  plans  of  the  gasoline  heater,  the  same  letters 
applying  to  both  cuts.  A  is  the  burner  box;  B  a  standard  Dangler 
lamp  burner  No.  154;  C,  pipe  connecting  burner  and  outside  supply 


^TZTT^ 


'■: 

...r-''. 

^. 

Mt 

.t 

*n 

'.    1 

VIEW  OF  HEATER.     Fig.  11. 


■f  R^-  s 


Pia.  ISO.— Mlin  ftoi  •>  <»•  fm  •*  l>»  ttiMM  uar 

SECTION  OF  HEATER.    Fig.  10. 


GROUND  PLAN.    FiG.  12. 


pipe;  D,  drip  pan  to  carry  outside  any  escaping  gasoline,  or  when 
fire  goes  out  unexpectedly ;  E  is  door  in  front  of  burner  box,  covered 
with  wire  cloth  to  admit  air,  draft  being  prevented  by  tin  shield 
inside.  Air  also  enters  through  holes  in  bottom  of  rear  end  of 
burner.  F  is  chamber  above  heater  box,  where  air  entering  by  four 
one-fourth-inch  holes  at  inside  end  is  warmed  by  contact  and  sent 
through  perforated  tin  of  chick  guard.  G  is  floor  collar  fitting  over 
collar  of  chamber  F.  H  is  chick  guard,  fitting  over  collar,  G,  protect- 
ing chicks  from  hot  steam,  I,  and  giving  entrance  for  fresh  air  under 
hover.  I  is  stem  connecting  Vv^ith  radiator,  K.  L  is  tin  diaphragm 
with  thick  layer  of  asbestos  on  top,   supported   three-fourths   inch 


44  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

above  bottom  of  radiator,  and  extending  within  three-fourths  inch 
of  its  outer  rim.  M  is  outlet  to  radiator.  N  connection  between 
outlet  and  vent  pipe,  P.  O  is  sheet  of  tin  nailed  to  rear  wall  of 
house,  through  which  vent  pipe  passes.  Q  is  guard  to  prevent  hover 
from  resting  on  radiator.  R  is  gasoline  tank;  S,  filler  plug;  T,  filler 
cap,  and  U  outlet  connecting  with  supply  pipe,  C. 

The  method  of  feeding  the  chick  in  the  brooder  makes  less  dif- 
ference than  the  care  v/ith  which  that  feeding  is  done,  also  the  kind 
of  feed  fed  is  not  of  as  much  importance  as  the  condition  of  the 
feed.  You  cannot  exercise  too  much  care  in  feeding.  Never  feed 
any  sour,  mouldy  or  -musty  feed.  Nearly  all  the  trouble  among 
brooder  chicks  comes  from  this  cause.  Either  the  feed  dealer  has 
ground  up  some  feed  that  has  started  to  spoil,  or  the  feed  has  heated 
after  it  was  ground,  and,  although  not  bad  enough  to  be  readily 
detected,  it  will  cause  indigestion  and  finally  death  to  the  chick. 

To  start  the  baby  chick  there  is  nothing  finer  than  bread  dried 
in  the  oven,  ground  fine  and,  mixed  vv^ith  hard-boiled  eggs,  run  shells 
and  all  through  a  meat  chopper;  a  fev/  onions,  also  chopped  fine, 
is  very  good  to  add  to  this.  In  a  few  days  we  begin  mixing  chick 
feed  with  this,  gradually  adding  more  until  we  are  only  feeding  the 
chick  feed  for  the  grain  ration  entirely,  then  at  three  weeks  old 
begin  to  add  more  wheat  and  cracked  corn  to  the  chick  feed,  and 
so  in  a  short  tim.e  you  have  switched  them  on  wheat  and  cracked 
corn  in  equal  parts  without  making  any  abrupt  change  in  their  feed. 
This  is  one  of  the  secrets  of  success  in  feeding,  to  give  the  greatest 
possible  variety  of  feed  all  the  time  and  never  make  an  abrupt  change 
in  the  feed.  In  feeding  the  soft  feed  or  mash,  follow  much  the 
same  plan,  starting  with  clear,  flaky  bran  in  cake  tins  and  switching 
gradually  over  to  the  regular  ration  of  mixed  dry  mash,  and  also 
changing  from  the  cake  tins  to  deeper  basins  until  you  can  use  the 
big  outdoor  hoppers  that  only  have  to  be  filled  once  a  week,  and 
where  the  chicks  run  whenever  they  want  to  and  help  themselves. 
Grit  is  best  furnished  by  having  the  floor  of  the  brooder  covered 
with  nice  sharp  sand,  which  should  be  renewed  every  time  the 
brooder  is  cleaned.  Later,  when  the  chicks  are  fed  on  the  range, 
the  grit  should  be  scattered  over  the  range ;  this  is  a  much  better 
way  than  small  hoppers  in  the  brooder.  For  green  feed  there  is 
nothing  better  than  fine  chopped  onions  and  lettuce  for  early;  later 
on  a  clover  sod  placed  in  the  brooder  is  greatly  relished.  But  we 
should  get  the  little  chicks  out  on  the  grass  just  as  soon  as  it  is 
possible.  The  weather  and  temperature  will  change  this  rule,  but 
we  like  to  get  them  out  on  the  ground  when  one  week  old ;  at  least 
for  an  hour  at  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  just  as  soon  as  they  can 


BROODING.  45 

be  trusted  to  go  inside  if  they  feel  cold  at  all,  they  can  be  let  out 
in  the  morning  and  not  shut  up  until  night.  Another  necessity  for 
little  chicks  is  plenty  of  fresh  water  always  before  them.  The  water 
basins  should  never  be  allowed  to  become  dirty  or  dry.  If  the  chicks 
become  thirsty  because  their  basins  are  dry,  you  are  in  for  trouble, 
for  when  water  is  given  they  will  pile  up  around  the  basins,  and  a 
lot  of  drenched  little  chicks  will  result,  which  may  cause  chills  and 
heavy  loss. 

Some  partisans  of  the  long  pipe  brooder-house  system  claim 
that  you  can  raise  the  chicks  there  until  three  weeks  old  and  then 
place  them  out  in  tireless  brooders  on  the  range  where  they  can 
develop.  This  is  all  right  in  theory,  and  although  all  poultrymen 
admit  a  chick  has  very  little  brains,  yet  they  have  a  wonderful  home 
instinct  and,  if  possible  to  get  around  it,  should  not  be  moved  from 
one  brooder  to  another.  It  is  much  better  to  move  the  brooder, 
chicks  and  all,  than  to  try  to  move  the  chicks  to  new  quarters  while 
they  are  small.  Great  loss  has  frequently  occurred  after  moving 
chicks  to  new  quarters  by  their  huddling  on  account  of  fright  at  the 
strangeness  of  their  new  quarters. 

The  many  diseases  of  chicks  should  not  come  under  the  head 
of  brooding,  although  they  are  all  part  of  the  anxiety  of  the  poultry- 
man,  and  many  of  them  occur  only  during  the  early  or  "brooder 
stage"  of  the  chick's  life,  and  are  nearly  all  caused  by  some  neglect 
or  blunder  of  the  one  running  the  brooder.  Neither  should  vermin 
come  in  this  chapter,  although  they  are  the  torment  of  the  poultry- 
man's  life,  especially  during  the  brooding  season,  and  must  always 
be  taken  account  of  when  figuring  on  the  season's  work.  The  old 
saying,  "Not  every  egg  becomes  a  chicken,"  is  true,  and  with  the 
best  of  care  "not  every  chicken  becomes  a  hen  or  even  a  rooster." 
The  awful  loss  among  brooder  chicks  is  responsible  for  a  new  busi- 
ness called  the  "baby  chick"  trade.  There  are  lots  of  poultrymen 
who  have  ample  capacity  in  their  incubators  for  all  their  needs  if 
they  could  only  raise  a  fair  proportion  of  the  chicks  hatched.  But 
as  the  season  advances  and  they  figure  up  their  mortality,  in  despera- 
ation  they  send  to  some  hatchery  and  buy  baby  chicks  by  the  thou- 
sand in  order  to  come  somewhere  near  the  number  of  birds  they 
need  to  fill  their  houses.  Of  course  there  is  a  demand  for  these 
baby  chicks  from  people  who  have  no  incubators,  but  that  this  is 
small  can  be  reasoned,  because  anyone  going  into  the  poultry  busi- 
ness extensively  will  have  his  own  incubators,  as  the  hatching  is  the 
easiest  part  of  the  business. 

Some  years  ago  it  took  a  whole  lot  of  nerve  to  pack  a  lot  of 
freshly  hatched  chickens  in  a  box  and  ship  them  away  by  express* 


46  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

and  if  the  one  who  first  tried  it  was  very  familiar  with  the  express 
companies'  methods  how  surprised  he  must  hav£  been  to  find  the 
chicks  had  arrived  safely  at  their  destination !  From  some  such 
small  experiment  has  grown  the  new  business,  that  of  selling  and 
shipping  baby  chicks  or  "day  olds"  as  they  are  sometimes  called. 
This  business  is  done  by  large  hatcheries,  in  mammoth  incubators 
and  on  an  immense  scale.  There  are  men  with  their  incubator 
capacity  of  many  thousands  of  eggs  who  make  a  business  of  hatching 
and  shipping  baby  chicks  all  over  the  country.  Many  smaller  breeders 
are  advertising  eggs  for  hatching  and  baby  chicks  at  the  same  time, 
counting  on  hatching  the  eggs  they  can't  sell  for  others  to  hatch. 
This  is  no  business  for  the  am.ateur  to  start,  as  only  an  expert  with 
the  incubators  can  be  sure  of  "good  hatches,"  and  there  is  no  money 
in  anything  but  the  best  of  hatches  from  vigorous  stock,  for  one  has 
to  get  a  reputation  for  strong  vitality  in  the  chicks  if  he  would  sell 
twice  in  the  same  neighborhood.  It  takes  lots  of  nerve  for  a  lover 
of  chickens  to  take  a  hundred  of  the  little  downy  balls  and  pack 
them  in  a  flat  box,  nail  down  the  cover  and  leave  them  to  the  tender 
mercies  of  the  express  company.  Yet  there  are  thousands  shipped 
every  day  throughout  the  hatching  season.  Baby  chicks  must  be 
shipped  direct  from  the  incubators  before  they  have  been  fed.  We 
commonly  use  a  box  with  sides  about  five  inches  high  and  large 
enough  to  hold  100  or  more  chicks,  first  spreading  some  muslin  or 
burlap  over  the  bottom  of  the  box,  on  which  we  spread  a  good 
layer  of  cotton  and  then  fold  back  the  cloth  on  which  we  then  place 
the  baby  chicks  just  enough  so  they  will  not  pile  up  on  each  other, 
then  back  over  the  chicks  goes  the  cloth,  to  be  again  covered  with 
cotton  and  after  folding  back  again  over  the  cotton  the  box  is  ready 
for  the  cover  to  be  nailed  on.  Some  shippers  use  feathers  instead 
of  cotton,  and  it  is  wonderful  how  they  will  stand  transportation  if 
rightly  packed. 

A  CONNECTICUT  MAN'S  OUTFIT. 

If  the  average  poultryman  would  spend  as  much  for  a  chick 
raising  outfit  adapted  to  natural  methods,  as  he  does  for  equipment 
based  on  artificial  methods,  he  would  get  considerably  better 
results,  and  at  the  same  time  reduce  the  cost  for  labor  and  feed 
materially.  When  I  first  began  raising  chickens  I  was  not  able 
to  find  that  anybody  had  put  much  thought  into  the  problem  of 
raising  chicks  with  a  minimum  of  attention.  The  outfit  illustrated 
at  Figs.  13-14  is  the  product  evolved  through  experience,  and  after 
several  season's  use  I  cannot  suggest  any  material  modification.  In 
round  numbers  I  have  in  one  year  raised  to  broiler  size  or  beyond, 


BROODING. 


47 


700  chicks  out  of  1,000  hatched.  So  far  as  I  could  see  practicall)- 
all  that  loss  was  due  to  lack  of  inherited  vigor. 

Given  a  good  chick  to  start  v^ith,  the  problem  is  to  protect 
from  vermin  and  storms,  and  at  the  same  time  maintain  favorable 
environment.  The  latter  requirement  means  frequent  change  to 
fresh  ground  and  my  "chickery"  is  designed  to  provide  this  with 
a  minimum  of  labor.  Everything  is  so  that  it  is  only  necessary 
to  lift  slightly  on  the  end  away  from  the  coop  and  drag  as  far  as 
may  be  desired.  On  rainy  days  an  old  sack  is  thrown  over  the 
open  part  of  the  top,  so  the  storm  danger  is  practically  eliminated. 

By  running  the  eggs  under  the  hen  for  nineteen  days  and  then 
shifting  to  the  incubator  to  hatch,  the  little  fellows  have  a  couple 
of  days  to  get  on  their  pins,  safe  from  lice  or  being  trodden  under- 
foot. Then  I  take  them  out,  grease  their  heads,  put  about  a  dozen 
under  a  hen,  and  keep  them  in  the  "chickery"  for  three  weeks. 
When  they  are  about  a  week  old  I  grease  their  heads  again,  and 


SMALL  CHICK  HOUSE.    Fig.  13. 


WITH  YARD  ATTACHED.    Fig.  14. 


then  make  a  final  application  when  they  are  given  free  range. 
For  three  weeks  they  seem  perfectly  contented  in  their  confine^ 
ment,  but  after  that  they  grow  restless,  and  do  better  running  free. 

These  outfits  are  7  feet  long  over  all,  2  feet  wide  and  20  inches 
high.  The  chicks  are  fed  commercial  chick  feed  by  means  of  an 
automatic  device  made  of  wire  screens.  By  pecking  at  this  they 
work  out  just  what  they  need  but  no  more.  The  slatted  partition 
lets  the  chicks  into  the  feeding  compartment,  but  keeps  the  hen 
out.  The  saving  in  feed  at  2J^  cents  a  pound  is  no  small  item 
of  advantage.  The  water  can  hangs  from  above,  the  same  as  the 
feeder.  The  hen  can  reach  it  to  drink  all  she  pleases,  but  she 
cannot  tip  it  over,  or  scratch  it  full  of  dirt.  Beef  scrap  is  supplied 
after  the  first  week,  in  a  little  hopper  tacked  to  the  corner  post, 
opposite  the  feeder.     The  old  hen  is  fed  principally  on  whole  corn. 

With  these  outfits  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  near  the  little 
chicks  oftener  than  once  a  day  in  good  weather.  Any  attention 
may  be  given  after   dark  as  well   as   at  any  other  time.     I   have 


48 


THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 


frequently  gone  out  in  the  evening,  moved  the  chicks  to  fresh 
ground,  filled  up  the  water  tanks  and  feeders,  thrown  in  some  whole 
corn  for  the  old  hen's  breakfast,  and  then  returned  thirty-six  hours 
later  to  find  everything  all  right  But  best  of  all,  the  feed  is  right 
there  waiting  the  moment  the  chicks  wake  up  in  the  morning, 
and  that  is  several  hours  earlier  than  a  good  many  people  realize. 
System  and  the  right  equipment  make  it  possible  to  raise  first-class 
chickens  without  much  interference  with  the  regular  daily  routine. 

HOMEMADE  BROODER.— 'The  m.aterial  required  is  an 
empty  one-pound  coffee  can,  a  two-pound  coffee  can,  a  piece  of  gal- 
vanized sheet  iron  24x36  inches,  with  a  hole  in  center  that  wiil  just 
fit  the  one-pound  can,  85  feet  of  seven-eights-inch  matched  pine  and 
six  feet  of  one-half-inch  pine.  Make  the  four  sides  of  the  box  nine 
inches  high;  that  will  just  take  in  the  sheet  iron;  put  strips  %xl 
inch  inside  the  box  two  inches  below  top  edge,  for  the  sheet  iron  to 


^JL^tL. 


HOMEMADE  BROODER.    Fig.  15. 

rest  on.  Take  the  one-pound  can  and  cut  slits  a  half  inch  apart  all 
around  the  top  edge;  cut  just  down  to  where  the  bulge  in  the  tin  is 
(about  one-half  inch),  put  the  slit  part  through  the  sheet  iron  and 
bend  the  slit  pieces  down  flat  on  the  iron.  The  bulge  prevents  the 
can  from  going  through  the  iron,  and  if  the  slit  pieces  are  ham- 
mered down  tight  it  makes  nearly  an  air-tight  job,  but  to  make  sure 
that  no  fumes  from  the  lamp  get  above  the  sheet  iron  it  is  better 
to  solder  it  tight.  Place  the  iron  in  the  box  and  nail  strips  on  top 
of  iron,  pressing  it  down  tight  on  the  under  strips.  Nail  a  floor  of 
%-inch  stuff  on  top  of  box,  cutting  a  hole  in  center  the  size  of  the 
two-pound  coffee  can ;  slit  the  can  like  the  other,  bend  the  pieces 
out  and  nail  on  top  of  floor,  but  first  punch  the  top  of  can  full  of 
^-inch  holes  to  let  the  hot  air  out.  Then  bore  five  or  six  half-inch 
holes  on  the  two  ends  through  sides  of  box  between  sheet  iron  and 
floor  of  brooder  to  let  in  air;  also  four  holes  in  each  end  of  box 


BROODING.  49 

one  inch  in  diameter  near  bottom  edge  to  let  in  air  for  lamp.  The 
rest  is  plain  carpenter  work.  Take  a  piece  nine  inches  wide,  length 
of  box,  and  nail  or  screw  on  back  end,  letting  it  come  down  only  an 
inch  or  so  below  the  edge  of  box.  Then  nail  on  sides,  using  two 
2x2-inch  posts  30  inches  long  to  hold  up  front  end.  I  line  the  hover 
part  with  5^-inch  pine  63/4  inches  wide,  nailing  on  strips  at  top  and 
bottom  edge  one-half  inch  square,  so  that  it  makes  a  half-inch  air 
space  on  ends  and  back. 

"The  hover  cover  of  ^^-inch  stuff  rests  on  this  lining  and  is  not 
fastened,  can  be  lifted  out  to  clean  out  brooder,  and  as  chicks  get 
old  enough  is  removed  entirely.  To  the  front  of  hover  cover  are 
tacked  strips  of  cloth  two  inches  wide,  reaching  the  floor.  Some 
of  these  cloth  strips  can  be  turned  up  on  top  of  cover  to  let  out  hot 
air  on  warm  days.  On  front  part  of  sides  bore  holes  as  shown  in 
figure,  and  make  a  sliding  cover  so  as  to  close  or  open  these  holes. 
The  amount  of  air  entering  the  half-inch  holes  above  sheet  iron 
and  passing  over  chicks  is  governed  by  these  ventilators.  The  front 
half  of  roof  is  screwed  to  sides  and  front  and  middle  bar.  The  back 
half  is  loose  and  projects  three  inches  under  front  part;  can  be 
lifted  up  as  shown  by  dotted  lines,  then  by  lifting  hover  cover  the 
floor  can  be  easily  cleaned." 


CHAPTER  V. 
THE  FIRST  SUMMER. 

The  business  hen  should  make  her  start  early  in  the  year. 
Hatch  as  early  as  possible  and  get  the  chick  well  on  its  way  before 
hot  weather  comes  on.  You  want  the  pullets  to  begin  laying  early, 
while  the  old  hens  are  moulting.  This  means  200  days  or  more  of 
growth,  and  this  growth  must  be  rapid  and  steady  if  you  expect 
the  pullet  to  attend  to  business  early.  If  the  early  part  of  the 
season  is  warm  the  chicks  will  be  weaned  at  eight  to  10  weeks 
old.  Then  the  old  hen  deserts  them,  or  they  leave  the  brooder 
and  must  shift  for  themselves.  The  growth  they  make  during  this 
"first  Summer''  determines  most  of  their  usefulness.  We  should  give 
the  pullets  free  range,  within  reasonable  lim.its.  We  find  an  apple 
orchard  with  reasonably  low  trees  a  good  place  for  the  pullets  to 
make  their  growth.  They  will  occupy  the  brooder  or  colony 
house  for  a  time,  but  finally,  as  they  gain  size  and  strength,  will 
fiy  up  and  roost  in  the  trees.  They  do  no  harm,  but  benefit  them- 
selves in  this  way,  and  we  permit  them  to  stay  in  the  trees  until 
late  Summer  or  early  Fall,  when  they  are  put  into  the  Winter 
houses.  It  is  something  of  a  job  to  catch  these  tree  roosters,  but 
the  free  life  through  the  Summer  does  tliem  good.  If  the  pullets 
are  kept  free  from  lice  and  given  what  they  want  of  pure  water 
and  clean  food  they  will  pretty  much  take  care  of  themselves,  and 
be  the  better  for  doing  it.  The  great  point  is  to  keep  them  con- 
tented and  growing  steadily,  with  plenty  of  exercise.  The  old 
plan  of  feeding  is  now  giving  way  to  the  modern  method  of  keep- 
ing a  hopper  of  "dry  mash"  constantly  before  them,  so  that  they 
can  help  themselves  at  will.  A  feeding  outfit  used  in  Minnesota 
is  shown  at  Fig.  18.  A  "dry  mash"  is  a  mixture  of  grains  or 
dried  meat — much  like  the  old  wet  mash  with  the  water  left  out. 
There  is  some  controversy  as  to  the  value  of  dry  mash  in  unlimited 
quantities  for  laying  stock,  but  it  seems  to  be  demonstrated  that  for 
young  birds  the  dry  food  is  superior.  It  is  a  more  economical  way 
of  feeding — saving  much  labor  and  time.  One  method  of  dry 
mash  feeding  is  described  by  A.  F.  Hunter. 

He  uses  a  commercial  dry  mash  mixture  already  mixed,  but  if 
a  man  is  raising  chickens  on  a  large  scale  he  may  mix  his  own  dry 


THE  FIRST  SUMMER. 


51 


mash.  A  good  mixture  is  recommended  by  the  Maine  Experiment 
Station,  This  consists  of  200  pounds  of  wheat  bran,  100  pounds 
cornmeal,  100  pounds  middHngs,  100  pounds  gluten  meal  or  brewers' 
grains,  100  pounds  linseed  meal  and  100  pounds  of  beef  scrap. 
These  materials  are  spread  on  the  floor  in  layers,  one  above  the 
other,  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  a  shovel  or  hoe.  Smaller 
amounts  in  the  same  proportion  can  be  mixed  in  the  same  way. 
Mr.  Hunter  thinks  this  dry  mash  is  too  forcing  for  some  breeds,  at 
least,  and  he  would  recommend  leaving  out  the  linseed  meal  from 
the  mixture.  The  commercial  feeds  often  contain  small  quantities 
of  buckwheat,  some  sunflower  seed  and  Kaffir  corn,  all  of  which 
add  to  the  variety,  and  that  pleases  the  birds.  This  dry  mash  is 
fed  to  the  young  birds  in  a  hopper,  such  as  is  described  in  the 
picture,  Fig.  16.  One  picture  shows  the  hopper  complete,  and  the 
other  with  the  top  taken  off,  so  that  it  may  be  filled.  The  roof  is 
made  of  a  good  quality  of  roofing  paper,  and  as  shown  in  the  pic- 


DRY  MASH  HOPPER.    Ftg.  16. 


WITH  COVER  REMOVED.    Fig.  17. 


ture,  projects  four  inches  beyond  the  edges  of  the  trough,  and  this 
protects  the  grain  from  a  driving  rain.  This  hopper  can  be  made 
of  any  desired  size.  The  one  shown  in  the  picture  holds  about  half 
a  bushel  of  grain  on  each  side.  The  slats,  through  which  the  hens 
put  their  heads  to  feed,  are  made  of  lath,  and  there  is  a  slanting 
lip  made  of  a  planed  lath  along  the  front  of  the  trough,  which  pre- 
vents the  grain  being  thrown  out  when  the  birds  are  feeding.  Such 
a  hopper  will  provide  a  dry  mash  for  about  50  birds,  and  require 
filling  once  a  week,  so  there  is  little  labor  required  in  caring  for  the 
birds.  In  some  systems  of  colony  feeding  the  water  supply  is  pro- 
vided by  filling  a  barrel  with  water  with  a  faucet  draining  into  a 
small  pan.  The  faucet  is  arranged  so  that  it  drops  slowly,  drop  by 
drop.  This  provides  water  enough  for  the  chicks  and  can  be  regu- 
lated properly,  and  the  barrel,  if  covered,  will  hold  pure  water 
enough  for  a  week's  supply.  In  this  system  little  labor  is  required, 
and  the  chicks  grow  rapidly  and  well.  Under  Mr.  Hunter's  system 
the  cockerels  are  left  with  the  pullets  until  the  former  weigh  about 


52 


THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 


3^2  pounds;  that  is,  for  Plymouth  Rocks  or  Wyandottes.  At  this 
weight  the  cockerels  are  taken  out  and  shut  up  for  fattening.  We 
would  rather  remove  the  cockerels  earlier  and  fatten  them  from  the 
time  they  can  be  separated  from  the  pullets. 

It  is  understood  that  the  pullets  alone  are  to  be  fed  in  this  v/ay. 
It  would  not  pay  to  handle  the  young  cockerels  in  like  manner. 
They  should  be  sold  as  soon  as  a  profitable  buyer  can  be  found, 
or  eaten  at  home.  As  soon  as  they  can  be  detected,  separate  them 
from  the  pullets  and  put  them  in  a  small  covered  pen  by  them- 
selves. With  the  pullets,  the  object  is  to  force  them  to  make  bone 
and  muscle  without  too  much  fat,  while  the  cockerels  are  not  to 
be  kept  any  longer  than  is  necessary.  Running  at  large,  they  will 
v/orry  and  fight  and  eat  their  heads  off  without  growing  fat  enough 
to  sell.  Cooped  up  and  stuffed  with  a  fattening  ration  they  can  be 
sold  as  squab  broilers  or  as  larger  birds.  There  is  a  good  demand 
for  squab  broilers,  weighing  from  12  to  14  ounces  each. 


MINNESOTA  HOPPER.  Fig.  18. 


FATTENING  COOP.  Fig.  19. 


It  requires  considerable  skill  to  pick  a  squab  broiler  nicely. 
The  skin  is  tender  and  the  appearance  of  the  bird  adds  much  to 
its  value.  A  broiler  with  the  skin  torn  in  pieces  would  be  rejected 
by  many  buyers.  Skillful  pickers  of  larger  birds  frequently  give 
up  in  disgust  after  trying  to  pick  the  broilers.  Only  those  with 
yellow  skin  and  legs  are  desired,  and,  of  course,  they  must  be  plump 
and  well  shaped.  These  little  birds  are  deprived  of  food  for  at  least 
12  hours  before  killing,  so  as  to  have  the  crop  empty;  hang  the 
chickens  by  both  feet  and  bleed  them  by  opening  the  mouth  and 
with  a  sharp  knife  cutting  the  main  artery  at  the  base  of  the  tongue. 
Draw  all  the  blood  quickly,  pull  out  the  large  wing  and  tail  feathers 
first,  then  the  smaller  feathers  and  finally  the  pin  feathers. 

The  greatest  care  must  be  taken  in  picking  the  wings  and 
breast,  for  there  the  skin  tears  easily.  As  soon  as  the  feathers  are 
off  throw  the  little  bird  in  ice  water,  as  this  cools  it  quickly  and 
prevents  discoloring.  When  ready  for  shipment  take  them  from 
the  ice  water  and  pack  in  pounded  ice.    Squab  broilers  are  a  luxury, 


THE  FIRST  SUMMER.  53 

high  priced  at  that,  and  like  the  production  of  fancy  strawberries 
or  apples,  certified  milk  or  any  other  form  of  luxurious  food, 
require  special  knack  and  "instinct"  to  do  the  work  properly. 
Unless  a  man  can  master  come  of  these  qualities  he  would  better 
let  the  birds  grow  larger  and  sell  as  large  broilers  or  roasters. 

Cockerels  fed  well  until  they  weigh  about  two  pounds  often 
make  very  profitable  brothers  to  the  business  hen — far  more  so 
than  when  they  are  permitted  to  run  at  large.  One  cause  of  loss 
on  some  poultry  farms  is  the  failure  to  handle  the  cockerels  prop- 
erly. Where  they  are  wanted  for  breeders,  of  course,  they  should 
not  be  handled  in  this  way,  but  given  free  range  and  fed  like  the 
pullets,  but  the  great  majority  of  them  should  be  put  by  themselves 
as  soon  as  they  are  recognized  and  fed  a  fattening  ration.  A  good 
mixture  is  four  parts  by  v/eight  of  cornmeal,  two  parts  wheat  mid- 
dlings and  one  part  beef  scraps.  This  is  wetted  Vv-ith  skim-milk 
into  a  soft  mush  or  porridge,  wet  enough  to  run  from  the  spoon. 
When  cockerels  are  fed  all  they  will  eat  of  this,  with  plenty  of 
water  and  kept  quietly  in  the  shade,  they  will  grow  fast  and  give 
soft,  sweet  meat,  far  superior  to  that  of  the  skinny  bird,  which  runs 
at  large.  Anyone  who  has  ever  tasted  the  flesh  of  "milk  fed" 
poultry  will  appreciate  such  meat,  and  this  plan  of  separating  the 
cockerels  early  and  feeding  them  this  porridge  may  well  be  prac- 
ticed even  by  those  V'/ho  have  but  a  sm.all  flock. 

Some  poultrymen  who  follow  the  colony  plan — that  is,  hens  in 
small  houses  scattered  over  a  large  field — winter  the  pullets  in  the 
houses,  which  serve  as  brooders  early  in  the  season.  A  cheap  and 
sensible  house  of  this  character  is  shown  in  the  illustrations.  Figs. 
20-21-22-23,  and  thus  described  by  C.  M.  Gallup,  with  whom  it 
originated.  Early  in  the  season  the  little  chicks  can  be  brooded  in 
such  a  house  and  later  a  flock  of  matured  pullets  wintered  in  it. 

"In  addition  to  the  advantages  common  to  all  colony  houses, 
this  design  has  several  all  its  own.  The  space  beneath  the  floor 
provides  shade  from  the  hot  sun,  shelter  from  storms  and  protec- 
tion against  hawks.  The  absence  of  a  foundation  or  underpinning 
leaves  nothing  to  harbor  rats.  Then  the  weight  of  the  structure 
makes  moving  to  fresh  ground  a  very  simple  matter.  One  horse 
will  drag  it  any  distance,  and  for  a  matter  of  a  few  hundred  feet 
it  can  be  kedged  along  with  a  chain  and  a  crowbar.  Ample  ventila- 
tion at  night  is  provided  by  the  cloth  screen,  which  slides  in 
grooves.  If  birds  are  to  be  confined  during  the  day,  a  v/ire  screen 
is  desirable.  The  depth  of  the  house  makes  cleaning  v/ith  a  hoe 
easy,  so  that  the  lack  of  headroom  is  no  objection.  I  use  this  house 
for  an  outdoor  brooder  shed  early  in  the  season,  a  roosting  coop 


54 


THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 


later  on,  and  then  do  the  culling  and  leave  the  pullets  right  where 
they  feel  at  home.  Then  there  is  no  break  in  the  continuity  of 
their  lives  just  as  they  are  ready  to  lay. 

'The  house  is  seven  feet  long  by  five  feet  deep,  three  feet  high 
at  the  rear,  with  a  pitch  of  three  inches  per  foot  to  the  roof.  The 
frame  is   of  ordinary  hardwood  boards,   3x%   inches,   assembled  as 


FRAME  OF  HOUSE.    Fig.  30. 


REAR  VIEW.    Fig.  21. 


shown  by  the  picture.  The  sills  are  2x6  inches,  and  the  flooring  is 
%-inch  stuff,  laid  parallel  to  the  ends  of  the  house.  The  sheathing 
is  7-16-inch  Southern  pine,  tongued  and  grooved.  This  is  nailed 
vertically  on  the  ends,  and  horizontally  over  front,  top  and  back. 
This  makes  the  whole  thing  remarkably  rigid  for  its  weight,  and 
there  is  no  tendency  for  the  house  to  rack  when  it  is  moved  or 
propped  up.  The  patent  roofing,  which  covers  the  top,  ends  and 
rear,  makes  it  wind-tight  and  dry.  Battened  down  with  lath,  this 
covering  lasts  for  a  good  many  years.  The  materials  used  in  build- 
ing this  house  cost  almost  exactly  six  dollars  three  years  ago. 
Experience  developed  the  interesting  fact  that  the  hens  were  just 
as  ready  and  willmg  to   Jav  m   a  nest  outside   the  house,   as   one 


AS  LAYING  HOUSE.  Fig.  23. 


AS  BROODER  HOUSE.  Fig.  23. 


within,  so  that  makes  a  further  saving  of  floor  space  possible.  The 
perches  are  simply  light  horses,  which  are  taken  outside  for  spray- 
ing, and  to  make  cleaning  out  easy.  The  size  of  this  house  makes 
it  just  right  for  a  breeding  pen.  Of  unmated  females,  it  will  house 
25  without  much  crowding.  In  growing  capons,  I  have  wintered 
35  or  40  in  it  and  had  them  do  well." 


THE  FIRST  SUMMER.  55 

The  lighter  and  more  active  breeds  of  cockerels  may  be  fattened 
in  a  pen,  but  the  heavier  breeds  will  make  quicker  growth  in  a 
fattening  crate.  The  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  recommends 
a  crate  such  as  is  shown  at  Fig.  19,  and  described  as  follows : 

"The  fattening  crate  is  quite  easily  constructed  and  will  last  for 
years  if  properly  made.  It  is  usually  six  feet  long,  16  inches  wide, 
18  inches  high,  and  is  divided  into  three  equal-sized  compartments, 
each  holding  from  four  to  six  birds,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  slats 
or  laths,  which  are  usually  1^4  inches  wide,  are  placed  1^  inches 
apart  at  the  ends,  sides  and  top  of  the  crate,  but  those  in  front  are 
placed  vertically  and  are  two  inches  apart,  giving  the  birds  plenty 
of  room  to  put  their  heads  through  to  eat  from  the  trough.  The 
floor  of  the  crate  is  made  of  slats,  v/hich  run  lengthwise  and  are 
placed  one  inch  apart,  leaving  a  one-inch  space  on  either  side 
between  the  first  lath  and  the  sides  of  the  crate.  The  crate  should 
stand  on  short  legs  or  trestles  to  allow  for  convenience  in  cleaning 
out  the  droppings  which  fall  to  the  floor.  The  trough  is  made 
the  full  length  of  the  crate,  and  should  be  about  three  or  four 
inches  deep." 

At  this  station  the  pens  for  fattening  cockerels  are  made  movable. 
The  roosting  coop  for  such  a  pen  is  three  feet  wide,  six  feet  long, 
two  feet  high  at  back  and  three  feet  in  front.  The  yard  is  made 
of  two  hurdles  of  wire  netting  12  feet  long  and  18  inches  high  and 
one  six  feet  wide.  A  large  hurdle  covers  the  top.  This  outfit  will 
hold  35  to  50  cockerels  and  is  moved  around  from  day  to  day. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
THE  BUSINESS  HENHOUSE. 

The  writer  of  this  chapter  wishes  to  describe  the  construction  of 
a  -poultry  building  which  is  comfortable,  inexpensive,  and  simple  in 
design,  and  to  include  in  this  discussion  the  principles  to  be  con- 
sidered when  designing  poultry  houses.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible 
to  meet  all  conditions  or  suit  all  tastes  in  one  type  of  house. 
Familiarity  with  the  principles  of  poultry-house  construction,  how- 
ever, makes  it  possible  for  one  to  mould  this  type  of  house,  or  any 
other,  into  a  type  more  suitable  to  his  tastes  and  convenience,  r.nd 
to  climatic  conditions. 

It  is  of  prime  importance  that  the  house  be  located  in  a  con- 
venient, accessible  place,  one  protected  from  the  cold  Winter  winds, 
and  at  the  same  time  exposed  to  warmth  of  the  morning  and  mid-day 
sun.  A  southern  or  southeastern  slope,  because  of  the  more  direct 
exposure  to  the  sun's  rays,  is  consequently  more  desirable.  Such 
a  slope,  furthermore,  is  drier,  often  making  it  possible  for  the  fowls 
to  get  on  to  dry  ground  several  weeks  earlier  in  the  Spring  and  later 
in  the  Fall.  Sunshine,  dryness,  warmth  and  accessibility  are  the 
influential  factors  in  locating  the  site  of  the  house. 

In  the  construction  of  the  "Business  Henhouse"  illustrated  in 
Fig.  24,  a  rectangular  enclosure  is  staked  out  16  feet  wide  and  32 
feet  long,  with  the  long  side  running  as  near  east  and  west  as  the 
slope  of  the  land  and  the  nearness  of  other  buildings  will  allow.  A 
trench  about  12  inches  wide  is  next  dug  around  the  edge  of  this 
enclosure,  the  outer  edge  of  the  trench  being  about  three  inches  out- 
side of  the  16x32  foot  enclosure.  In  ordinary  soils  this  trench  should 
be  about  30  inches  deep,  but  in  sandy  or  gravelly  soils  it  need  not 
exceed  one  foot  in  depth.  The  trench  should  then  be  filled  with 
cobblestones  or  coarse  gravel  to  within  four  inches  of  the  ground 
level.  In  this  manner  a  well-drained  bottom  is  prepared  for  the 
foundation  wall  of  the  house,  and  prevents  its  heaving  and  cracking 
by  frost.  A  cement  wall  six  inches  thick  makes  an  excellent  founda- 
tion for  the  building.  This  wall  should  be  at  least  six  inches  above 
the  ground  so  as  to  turn  surface  wash  aside  and  to  make  a  raised 
floor  possible.  If  the  ground  is  uneven  the  wall  will  need  to  be 
higher  in  places  to  bring  the  top  edge  level.    The  outer  edge  of  this 


THE  BUSINESS  HENHOUSE. 


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58  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

top  should  coincide  with  the  original  outline  of  the  proposed  build- 
ing.    All  is  now  ready  for  the  floor. 

In  Fig.  25  details  of  the  roost  and  nest  arrangements  are 
given.  K  is  the  roost ;  M,  droppings  board ;  B,  nests,  and  N,  drop 
door  to  nests.  At  the  rear  is  a  wire-screened  jail  for  broody 
hens,  and  in  front  is  the  shield  O,  protecting  the  roosts  from  drafts. 
Fig.  26  from  the  center  front  shows  arrangement  of  cloth  curtain 


DETAILS  OF  ROOST  AND  NEST.    Fig.  25. 


CENTER  FRONT 


END  VIEW. 


and  small  exit  for  hens,  and  one  end  of  the  house,  with  place  for 
feed  hopper,  water  pan  and  outer  door  is  shown  at  Fig.  27. 

The  warmth  and  dryness  of  the  house  greatly  depends  upon  the 
construction  of  the  floor.  The  average  soil  is  sufficiently  heavy  to 
retain  enough  moisture  to  make  the  house  damp  and  exceedingly 
dangerous  to  the  fowls'  health  during  certain  seasons  of  the  year. 
This  condition  can  be  forestalled  by  filling  in  with  cobblestones, 
gravel  or  cinders.    The  level  of  the  floor  should  be  raised  above  that 


THB  BUSINESS  HHNHOUSB.  59 

of  the  ground  outside,  even  if  the  dirt  floor  is  to  be  used.  The 
cement  floor,  however,  is  preferable  to  either  the  wooden  or  earth 
floor,  since  it  is  so  much  more  easily  cleaned  and  freed  from  rats, 
mice  and  vermin.  Moreover,  it  is  dry  when  properly  constructed. 
To  make  it  so,  fill  in  the  space  between  the  foundation  walls  to 
within  two  inches  of  the  top  level  with  stones  and  gravel.  The 
last  two  inches  can  then  be  filled  with  concrete  similar  to  that  used 
in  the  wall.  If  the  mixture  is  made  rather  watery,  the  top  can  be 
troweled  off  smooth  and  level,  making  it  unnecessary  to  add  a 
finishing  or  wearing  surface  of  richer  and  finer  material.  A  good 
thickness  of  tarred  paper  laid  beneath  the  layer  of  concrete  helps  to 
keep  moisture  from  coming  up  into  the  floor.  A  well-drained  floor, 
however,  will  be  dry  without  this  precaution. 

The  framework  of  this  house  can  be  constructed  from  two  by 
four-inch  timbers,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  24.  If  the  roof  is  very 
flat  the  rafters  should  be  of  heavier  material. 

One  thickness  of  tight  matched  boards  is  sufficient  covering  for 
any  part  of  the  building.  In  localities  where  the  temperature  goes 
below  zero  for  weeks  at  a  time,  the  extra  protection  of  a  roofing 
paper,  on  the  side  exposed  to  the  cold  v/inds,  is  desirable.  The  house 
can  be  made  still  warmer  by  covering  the  inside  studding  with 
unmatched  boards,  or  fme  mesh  wire,  and  filling  the  air  space  with 
straw.  The  inside  boards  should  be  far  enough  apart  to  allow  cir- 
culation of  air  in  the  space  between  the  walls,  or  it  would  be  even 
colder  than  the  single  matching.  Unfortunately,  such  a  wall  fur- 
nishes an  excellent  hiding  and  breeding  place  for  mice  and  vermin, 
and  is,  consequently,  advised  in  extremely  cold  climates  only. 

The  sides  should  be  built  low  in  order  to  lessen  the  amount  of 
air  which  the  fov/ls  will  have  to  warm.  For  this  reason  also  the 
house  is  often  ceiled  with  either  matched  boards  or  straw,  sup- 
ported loosely  by  boards  or  poultry  wire.  When  used,  the  ceiling 
extends  from  the  front  plate  to  the  rafters  opposite,  thence  down 
to  the  rear  plate.  Although  a  ceiling  adds  to  the  expense  of  the 
house,  it  does  make  the  house  warmer  in  the  Winter  and  cooler  in 
the  Summer  by  virtue  of  the  fact  that  the  air  space  above  holds  the 
cold  coming  through  the  roof  in  the  Winter,  and  the  heat  in  the 
Summer.  When  using  either  kind  of  ceiling  openings  should  be 
made  in  each  end  of  the  peak  in  order  to  allow  a  slight  circulation 
of  air  in  both  Winter  and  Summer,  otherwise  the  extreme  outside 
heat,  or  cold,  will  eventually  penetrate  this  air  space  and  make  the 
ceiling  as  hot  or  cold  as  the  roof.  The  amount  of  ventilation  given 
this  chamber  should,  of  course,  be  greater  in  the  Summer  than  in 
the  Winter. 


60  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

A  ceiling  is  more  appropriate  in  a  gable  or  combination-roof 
house  than  in  a  shed-roof  house.  The  shed-type  house  is  rarely 
ceiled  unless  very  wide  and  very  high  in  front.  The  shed-type  roof, 
however,  has  the  advantage  of  being  easy  to  construct.  It  turns  all 
the  water  to  the  back  and  gives  a  high  front  exposure  to  the  sun's 
heat.  It  does  not  make  as  attractive  a  building  as  the  combination 
or  gable.  The  combination  style  utilizes  a  lower  rear  wall  and  a 
higher  front  exposure  than  the  gable.  In  this  way  it  economizes  on 
both  lum.ber  and  cubic  feet  air  space.  Both  these  types  require  that 
the  rafters  be  securely  tied  to  prevent  the  weight  of  the  roof  from 
spreading  the  plates.  The  tie  beams  should  be  near  the  peak  unless 
the  roof  is  ceiled. 

Undoubtedly,  the  most  economical  covering  for  the  roof  is  a 
good  grade  of  roofing  paper  or  tin  on  a  tight  board  surface.  Such 
roofing  material  makes  it  possible  to  use  a  flat  pitched  roof.  If 
the  roof  is  shingled  instead,  the  pitch  or  slope  must  be  at  least  one- 
third,  or  30  degrees,  thus  increasing  the  air  space  of  the  house,  and 
unless  the  roofing  boards  are  tight,  making  a  looser  and  colder  roof. 
Such  construction  makes  the  inside  ceiling  more  necessary. 

Probably  most  important  of  all  is  the  front  of  the  house  where 
the  glass  windows  and  other  openings  are  placed.  All  the  openings 
are  placed  on  the  one  side,  so  that  by  keeping  the  other  three  sides 
tightly  closed  a  draft  is  prevented  from  passing  through  the  open 
front  and  out  through  the  opening  on  the  other  side,  or  vice  versa. 
The  glass  Vv^indows  should  be  large,  and  placed  vertically  extending 
from  a  few  inches  above  the  floor  to  a  point  six  or  seven  feet  higher. 
This  position  of  the  windows  allows  the  sun's  rays  to  reach  every 
part  of  the  floor  from  front  to  back,  thereby  keeping  the  house 
brighter,  drier  and  healthier.  The  windows  can  be  opened  by  slid- 
ing to  one  side,  or  by  swinging  outward  from  hinges  placed  at  the 
top  or  bottom  of  the  sash,  but  when  arranged  as  in  Fig.  24  the 
separate  sash  are  fastened  together  and  hinged  at  the  side  to  open 
like  a  door.  Enough  blank  wall  space  should  be  left  at  the  side  of 
the  window  to  allow  it  to  open  fully  against  the  wall  where  it  will 
not  be  broken.  The  window  opening  should  be  covered  with  poultry 
mesh  wire,  so  as  to  prevent  the  fowls  escaping  when  the  windows  are 
open.  This  wire  can  best  be  put  on  the  window  studding  and  be 
cased  in  by  the  siding.  The  size  of  the  windows  to  be  used  should 
provide  about  one  square  foot  of  glass  for  every  10  to  16  square  feet 
of  floor  space.  The  "business  henhouse"  has  one  square  foot  to 
every  12.8  square  feet  floor  space.  Each  window  has  three  sash  of 
six  SxlO-inch  lights  fastened  together  and  hinged  to  swing  back 
against  the  wall. 


THB  BUSINESS  HBNHOUSB.  61 

An  additional  window  covered  with  cloth  is  used  for  ventilating 
this  house.  The  size  of  this  window  should  be  varied  according  to 
climatic  conditions,  and  should  be  placed  where  it  will  allow  the 
least  amount  of  draft  to  reach  the  fowls,  especially  while  roosting. 
The  window  in  the  "business  henhouse"  is  3x4  feet  in  size,  and 
placed  near  one  end  of  each  pen.  There  is  also  a  shield  between 
this  window  and  the  perches.  The  curtain  frame  is  covered  with 
light  muslin  and  hinged  at  the  top  to  swing  up  and  fasten  to  the 
ceiling.  The  opening  is  covered  with  mosquito  mesh  wire  which 
serves  to  turn  the  storm  and  wind  better  than  poultry  mesh  win-, 
and  makes  it  unnecessary  to  drop  the  cloth  curtain  except  on  very 
cold  nights  or  during  prolonged  storms.  This  ventilating  window 
should  be  placed  at  least  three  feet  above  the  floor  in  order  that  the 
incoming  air  may  be  broken  up  and  distributed  before  reaching  the 
fowls  on  the  floor. 

For  Summer,  additional  ventilation  is  necessary.  It  is  well  to 
have  a  small  trap  door  in  the  back  of  the  pen  which  can  be  opened 
as  soon  as  the  hot  weather  comes  and  closed  tightly  in  the  Fall  to 
remain  so  all  Winter.  If  perches  are  placed  in  the  rear  of  the  pen  a 
shield  should  be  placed  in  front  of  this  opening  to  prevent  the  air 
blowing  on  to  the  roosting  fowls. 

INTERIOR  ARRANGEMENT. 

When  considering  the  comfort  of  the  fowls  and  the  convenience 
of  the  caretaker,  the  interior  arrangement  of  the  pen  is  nearly  as 
important  as  the  construction  of  the  building.  The  warmest  part  of 
the  building  should  be  selected  for  the  perches.  It  is  even  advisable 
in  very  cold  climates  to  give  them  the  additional  protection  of  double 
walls  and  a  cloth  curtain  in  front.  The  arrangement  of  the  roosts 
in  the  "business  henhouse"  is  such  that  the  fov>^ls  of  the  adjoining 
pens  are  next  to  the  same  partition  where  each  flock  can  be  of  mutual 
assistance  in  providing  warmth.  The  perches  are  placed  high  enough 
to  make  their  removal  unnecessary  when  cleaning  the  droppings 
platform.  All  the  perches  must  be  of  the  same  height,  or  the  fowls 
will  fight  for  the  higher  warmer  ones.  Each  fowl  should  be  allowed 
from  six  to  eight  inches  linear  perch  room.  The  droppings  platform, 
on  the  other  hand,  may  have  a  slight  forward  pitch.  This  will  keep 
the  fowls  from  squatting  on  it  at  night,  as  well  as  facilitating  clean- 
ing. Usually  at  one  end  of  this  platform  a  small  space  is  parti- 
tioned off  by  a  wire  screen  and  fitted  with  a  hardware  cloth,  or  slat- 
bottom  frame  to  be  used  for  breaking  up  sitters.  The  slatted  bottom 
can  be  removed  when  cleaning  or  when  the  coop  is  used  for  an  extra 
cock  bird  or  injured  iowA. 


62  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

When  droppings  platforms  are  used,  which  is  advisable,  they 
make  an  excellent  cover  for  the  nests.  However,  the  nests  are  fre- 
quently built  on  the  side  wall  and  a  separate  slanting  cover  put  over 
them.  If  placed  under  the  droppings  board  as  shown  in  Fig.  25, 
the  nests  are  made  in  the  form  of  a  frame  with  a  bottom  of  wood  or 
quarter-inch  mesh  hardware  cloth.  Each  nest  should  be  about  14 
inches  square  and  six  to  eight  inches  deep.  A  hinged  door  covering 
the  front  darkens  the  nests  and  makes  them  seem  secluded  to  the 
fowls.  They  are  entered  from  the  enclosed  runway  behind  which 
has  an  opening  at  either  end.  These  openings  can  be  closed  with 
small  sliding  doors  and  the  broody  hens  and  pullets  kept  from  roost- 
ing in  the  nests  at  night. 

Each  pen  should  be  further  equipped  with  a  dry  mash,  self- 
feeding  hopper,  a  water  pan,  and  with  a  grain  supply  can  in  case  the 
pen  is  distant  from  the  feed  barn.  The  feed  hopper  and  water  pan 
may  be  placed  on  a  raised  platform  from  15  to  18  inches  above  the 
floor  both  to  give  greater  floor  space  and  to  prevent  the  litter  from 
being  kicked  into  the  feed  and  water  when  the  fowls  work  in  the 
litter.  These  devices  should  be  arranged  in  the  most  convenient 
places  left  vacant  after  the  doors  and  perches  and  nests  are  located. 
The  entire  back  wall  or  side  wall  can  be  used  for  these  purposes  in 
the  "business  henhouse."  No  obstruction  should  be  placed  along 
the  front  wall  because  the  passageway  to  adjoining  pens  is  so  close 
to  it.  Many  would  wish  to  put  a  box  or  form  in  front  of  the  win- 
dows to  be  filled  with  dust-bath  material.  This  would  not  be  advan- 
tageous in  the  "business  henhouse."  The  box  should  be  put  at  the 
rear  or  on  one  side. 

The  partitions  between  pens  in  open  front  houses  should  be  solid 
from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling.  Wire  partitions  endanger  the  fowls  to 
drafts.  Half  board  partitions  finished  with  cloth  to  the  ceiling  are 
sometimes  used,  but  the  partition  near  the  roosting  chamber  should 
always  be  of  tight  boards.  The  door  between  pens  is  located  in  the 
most  convenient  place  with  reference  to  the  roosts  and  nests  and 
feed  hoppers.  It  is  placed  in  about  the  center  of  the  partition  when 
the  roosts  are  along  the  rear  side,  but  in  houses  arranged  like  the 
"business  henhouse"  with  the  perches  along  the  partition  wall,  the 
door  can  best  be  placed  near  the  front.  With  the  door  in  this  posi- 
tion there  is  little  chance  of  a  draft  between  pens.  All  partition 
doors  and  exits  should  have  a  six-inch  threshold  to  hold  the  litter 
in  the  pens.  This  description  of  the  "business  henhouse,"  and  the 
principles  upon  which  it  is  based  apply  to  many  other  styles  of 
buildings  and  make  it  possible  for  one  to  alter  the  size  or  style  of 
this  house  to  their  own  desire  or  requirements. 


THE  BUSINESS  HEN  HOUSE.  63 

The  "business  henhouse"  is  designed  for  flocks  of  about  one 
hundred  fowls.  The  two  pens  make  it  possible  to  separate  the  old 
from  the  young,  or  the  better  from  the  poorer  ones.  For  smaller 
flocks  the  same  design  can  be  used  with  shorter  measurements.  This 
style  also  enables  the  construction  of  a  long  house  with  a  number 
of  pens. 

REMODELING  HOUSES  OF  FAULTY  CONSTRUCTION. 

It  is  quite  as  possible  also  to  use  these  principles  in  remodeling 
an  old  house  or  fitting  up  an  unused  barn  or  outbuilding  into  a  com- 
fortable poultry  house.  Occasionally  after  building  a  house  of 
approved  design  it  is  found  to  be  too  cold  or  dark,  or  poorly  ven- 
tilated and  damp.  At  such  times  a  slight  alteration  or  addition  will 
often  remedy  this  condition  and  make  the  house  desirable  instead  of 
dangerous. 

A  frequent  mistake  is  to  build  a  house  with  high  walls  back  and 
front  and  without  ceiling,  making  it  very  spacious  and  cold.  It  is 
a  simple  matter  to  spike  2x4-inch  supports  to  the  side  walls  and 
v/ith  cross  beams  to  construct  a  ceiling  about  6^  feet  above  the 
floor.  This  ceiling  can  be  covered  with  tight-fitting  boards,  or  with 
straw  18  inches  thick,  supported  by  poultry  mesh  wire  or  by  loosely 
joined  boards.  In  either  case,  there  should  be  a  small  ventilating 
door  to  this  air  space  above  in  each  end  of  the  house. 

A  less  serious  error  is  to  use  an  alley-way.  It  is  an  expensive 
luxury,  occupying  valuable  space  which  cannot  be  used  by  the  fowls 
for  exercise,  but  has  to  be  warmed  up  by  them.  Such  an  alley-way 
can  easily  be  torn  out  and  the  pens  arranged  as  suggested  in  the 
"business  henhouse."  Practically,  the  only  advantage  of  an  alley- 
way house  is  its  cleaner  appearance  and  separate  entrance  for  exhibit- 
ing stock  to  visitors.  As  such  pens  are  generally  arranged  they  do 
not  expedite  work  even  in  long  houses.  It  is  also  a  fallacy  to  believe 
that  the  fowls  are  frightened  more  when  fed  directly  in  the  pen  than 
from  the  alley-v/ay.  They  soon  become  accustomed  to  the  feeder, 
and  can  be  watched  more  closely  to  discover  any  sick  or  poor  ones 
which  would  be  hidden  from  the  alley. 

Probably,  the  most  faulty  construction  in  the  old  types  of  houses 
is  the  lack  of  proper  ventilation.  In  those  styles  ventilation  was 
possible  only  when  the  door  was  opened  and  closed  by  the  feeder,  or 
through  small  exit  doors.  Such  houses  cannot  accommodate  their 
full  capacity  of  fowls,  and  the  moisture  given  off  in  the  fowls' 
breath  is  retained  in  the  pen,  making  it  damp,  and  in  the  Winter 
frosty.  This  moisture-laden  air  should  have  a  chance  to  escape  and 
drier,  pure  air  take  its  place.  Such  a  condition  can  be  provided  by 
substituting  a  porous  cloth  curtain  in  place  of  a  glass  window,  or 


64  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

if  there  is  too  little  glass  area  already,  by  cutting  an  opening  in 
the  front  of  the  house  and  fitting  in  a  cloth  curtain  similar  to  the 
one  in  the  "business  henhouse."  This  opening  should  provide  about 
one  square  foot  of  cloth  to  about  16  to  20  square  feet  of  floor  space. 
Under  normal  conditions  this  ventilation  will  keep  the  house  dry  and 
the  air  pure.  Other  methods  of  ventilation  have  been  found  less 
satisfactory,  and  in  some  instances,  the  more  expensive  systems  do 
not  work  at  all,  due  to  the  slight  difference  in  temperature  of  the 
air  inside  and  outside.  When  fresh  air  is  abundant,  a  larger  num- 
ber of  fowls  can  be  kept  in  the  same  pen  with  safety.  The  working 
rule  is  four  square  feet  of  floor  space  per  fowl. 

During  extremely  cold  weather  even  the  cloth  window  does  not 
always  prevent  the  frost  from  collecting  on  the  walls.  The  frost 
will  usually  be  found  in  houses  where  the  fowls  are  roosting  at  the 
back  or  coldest  side,  where  the  moisture  in  their  breath  striking 
against  the  cold  wall  is  condensed  and  frozen  before  it  is  removed. 
To  relieve  this  condition  tightly  enclose  the  roosting  chamber  on 
the  back  and  top  by  ceiling  from  the  droppings  platform  up  the  rear 
studding  and  under  the  rafters,  leaving  a  space  so  that  the  air  can 
circulate  between  the  rafters  and  entirely  about  this  chamber  as  rep- 
resented in  Fig.  25.  The  circulation  of  air  within  this  space  caused 
by  the  warmth  of  the  fowls  roosting  nearby  carries  off  and  dis- 
tributes the  cold  before  it  penetrates  to  the  inner  boards.  In  this 
way  the  air  within  the  roosting  chamber,  moist  with  breath,  is 
allowed  to  pass  off  before  being  condensed  and  frozen.  It  is  occasion- 
ally necessary,  however,  to  enclose  this  chamber  on  the  front  with  a 
cloth  curtain  hanging  several  inches  in  front  of  the  perches  to  allow 
sufflcient  air  to  enter  and  give  the  fowls  opportunity  to  get  down 
to  the  floor  early  in  the  morning.  Such  a  curtain  must  be  used 
judiciously,  since  there  is  much  danger  of  overheating  and  weaken- 
ing the  fowls  if  it  is  dropped  on  warm  nights. 

Dampness  in  a  house  also  comes  through  the  floor.  Ground 
floors  which  are  not  raised  on  the  inside  or  filled  in  with  sand,  or 
concrete  floors  constructed  without  under  drainage,  allow  the  mois- 
ture to  rise  through  them  and  into  the  house.  The  dirt  floor  can  be 
remedied  by  filling  in  with  sand  or  by  building  a  concrete  floor  if 
found  to  be  necessary.  The  dampness  in  an  improperly  drained 
concrete  floor  can  be  temporarily  lessened  by  covering  it  with  an 
inch  or  two  of  sand.  When  concrete  floors  are  laid  in  early  Winter, 
their  drying  can  be  hastened  by  covering  them  with  sand.  This  will 
also  help  protect  them  from  freezing.  In  tliese  and  similar  ways  a 
cold,  damp  and  disagreeable  house  can  be  made  v/arm,  dry  and 
comfortable. 


THE   BUSINESS  HENHOUSE.  65 

COLONY   HOUSES   VS.   LONG   HOUSES. 

The  design  of  the  "business  henhouse"  is  adaptable  to  either  the 
single  pen  colony  house  or  a  long  house  with  several  pens.  Usually 
the  farmers'  small  flock  requires  but  a  small  house  with  two  pens. 
Larger  houses  or  more  of  them,  however,  are  necessary  for  the 
occasional  farmer  or  poultryman  who  keeps  several  hundred  mature 
fowls.  It  is  the  custom  among  such  poultrymen  either  to  scatter 
their  flocks  in  colony  houses  or  to  keep  them  in  one  or  two  long 
houses.     Each  system  has  advantages  and  some  disadvantages. 

The  colony  house  system  allows  the  fowls  greater  freedom. 
They  can  go  in  all  directions  from  their  house,  whereas  in  the  long 
house  they  are  usually  restricted  to  one  side,  and  frequently  to  a 
narrow  patch  leading  away  from  their  pens.  A  hen  always  wishes  to 
get  on  the  other  side  of  the  fence,  and  for  this  reason,  if  no  other, 
do  away  with  fences  as  much  as  possible  and  instead  run  the  fowls 
together  in  large  outdoor  flocks,  or  in  colonies  far  enough  apart  so 
that  they  do  not  mix  easily.  Fences  are  very  expensive  and  a 
nuisance  in  every  way. 

There  is  less  chance  of  disease  spreading  from  colony  to  colony 
than  from  pen  to  pen  in  a  long  house.  And  because  of  the  greater 
freedom  and  the  lesser  contamination  of  the  ground  around  a  colony 
house  fowls  get  diseased  less  frequently.  It  is  generally  accepted 
that  fovv^ls  kept  in  small  flocks  give  greater  returns  both  in  the  num- 
ber and  the  hatching  power  of  the  eggs  produced.  For  these  reasons 
the  colony  system  should  be  used  for  the  breeding  stock.  The  long 
house  system  on  the  other  hand,  minimises  the  time  and  labor  needed 
in  feeding  and  caring  for  the  fowls,  thereby  enabling  one  to  person- 
ally manage  a  much  larger  plant.  All  of  the  work  is  done  indoor 
and  under  shelter,  and  because  of  the  compactness  of  the  plant  many 
labor-saving  devices,  such  as  the  overhead  feed  car,  can  be  used 
advantageously.  The  long  house  also  can  be  built  much  more 
economically  than  the  colony  houses  of  the  same  capacity,  for  in 
bringing  two  colony  houses  together  one  end  of  each  house  is  saved. 
For  this  reason,  too,  the  long  house  is  less  exposed  and  is  conse- 
quently warmer. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  objection  to  the  long  house  is  the  probable 
contamination  of  the  ground  in  front  of  the  pens,  unless  the  land  be 
very  sandy.  This  condition  can  be  prevented  by  using  the  double 
yard  system,  with  one  yard  in  front  and  one  in  back.  These  yards 
can  be  used  alternately,  and  one  yard  be  cultivated  and  cropped  while 
the  other  is  used  by  the  fowls.  In  this  way  contamination  is  pre- 
vented, and  in  addition  the  valuable  fertilizer  from  these  fowls, 
otherwise   lost,   is  turned   into   excellent   crops.     A   consideration   of 


66 


THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 


the  advantages  of  each  system  leads  to  a  natural  combination  of 
the  two  methods,  a  combination  which  at  present  is  practiced  too 
seldom.  This  combination  would  make  use  of  the  colony  houses  for 
the  breeding  stock  only,  and  of  the  long  houses  for  the  bulk  of  the 
stock  kept  primarily  for  Qgg  production.  This  practice  would  pro- 
vide the  breeding  stock  in  colony  houses  with  conditions  conducive 
to  the  production  of  strong  eggs  capable  of  hatching  out  vigorous 


CORNELL  LAYING  HOUSE.    Fig.  28. 

chicks,  and  on  the  other  hand  it  would  enable  the  poultryman  to 
care  for  large  numbers  of  laying  hens  in  the  long  house  with  the 
least  amount  of  labor  and  expense. 

The  "New  York  State  Model  Laying  House,"  in  u/se  at 
Cornell  University,  is  shown  at  Fig.  28.  This  is  a  good  illustra- 
tion of  the  shed-type,  fresh-air  house.  The  back  and  ends,  as  well 
as  the  roof,  are  covered  with  paper  to  make  the  house  tighter. 
There   is   a    Summer   ventilator   above   the    glass    windows    and    a 


A  TWO-FAMILY  IIOUSE.    Fig.  39. 

covered  dust  wallow  just  inside  the  lower  sash.     This  house  can  be 
used  singly  or  in  series. 

Fig.  39  illustrates  a  two-pen  colony  breeding  house,  built  by 
D.  J.  Lambert,  Apponaug,  R.  I.  The  shape  of  this  house  makes  it 
economical.  The  fowls  roost  next  to  the  partition  between  pens. 
The  opening  in  front  is  covered  by  a  frame  of  cloth,  which  swings 
open  against  the  side. 


THB  BUSINESS  HBN HOUSE. 


67 


A  MAKESHIFT  HOUSE.— Some  good  hen  records  are  made 
in  cheap  houses  not  built  on  scientific  lines.  Such  a  house  is  de- 
scribed below.  In  such  cases  it  is  not  so  much  the  house  as  the 
man  who  knows  by  instinct  how  to  make  the  hens  comfortable. 

"What  results  would  you  expect  from  75  hens  wintered  in  a 
coop  of  this  cost?  I  had  75  May-hatched  pullets  to  winter.  I  built 
a  coop  12x18  feet,  inside  measurement.  The  material  was  sod  for 
the  sides;  the  roof  was  straw,  covered  with  corn  fodder;  the  floor, 
Nature's  deodorizer,  natural  earth.  I  first  selected  a  well-sheltered 
location,  then  proceeded  by  setting  three  crotches,  each  crotch  set 
three  feet  deep.  This  for  the  peak  of  my  roof.  Next  I  set  ordinary 
six-foot  fence  posts  on  side  four  feet  apart,  two  feet  deep,  leaving 
sides  of  coop  four  feet  high,  plenty  high  enough  for  sides  of  any 
coop.  Then  I  spiked  poles  on  to  those  fence  posts  on  top,  and 
nailed  on  small  poles  on  sides  of  posts ;  laid  poles  in  those  centef 
crotches,  then  laid  poles  from  post  plates  to  crotch  poles  for  rafters, 


SOD  AND  POLE  HOUSE.    Fig.  30 

and  my  frame  was  complete.  I  put  in  a  window  frame  of  plank  on 
south  side  2x8  feet,  covered  same  with  muslin  curtain  (no  glass)  ; 
but  door  in  east  end.  I  cut  sod  and  sodded  up  sides ;  put  a  little 
brush  crosswise  of  rafter  poles,  covered  with  straw  and  shingled 
with  corn  fodder.  The  foundation  of  my  coop  is  raised  slightly  so 
water  runs  away  from  it,  which  is  very  important.  So  my  labor  and 
all  would  amount  to  about  $12.  I  put  pullets  in  coop  in  December 
and  they  soon  began  laying.  In  January,  February,  March  and  April 
I  averaged  close  to  five  dozen  eggs  per  day.  My  income  was  a  little 
better  than  $1  per  day  clear  of  feed ;  and  they  have  continued  lay- 
ing well  all  Summer  till  molting  this  Fall.  Now  they  are  mostly 
through  the  molt  and  are  going  right  into  the  egg  producing  busi- 
ness  again." 


CHAPTER  VIL 


It  is  unquestionably  true  that  a  large  number  of  the  failures  in 
poultry  enterprises  are  due  directly  to  disease  and  that  these  diseases 
are,  as  a  rule,  not  of  a  communicable  nature,  but  rather  the  result 
of  mismanagement,  unskilled  feeding,  and  too  little  attention  to  gen- 
eral sanitation.  Any  system  of  feeding  and  care  which  does  not 
keep  the  fowls  active,  bright-eyed,  of  keen  appetite,  slick  in  appear- 
ance, and  of  hard  flesh,  is  fundamentally  wrong.  It  is  by  careful 
housing,  feeding  and  management  that  the  diseases  described  in  the 
following  paragraphs  may  be  prevented.  One  must  recognize  that 
disease  is  a  sign  that  proper  care  and  sanitation  have  not  been  prac- 
ticed and  must  take  immediate  steps  to  rectify  these  conditions. 
The  individual  treatment  of  fowls  is  expensive  and  unsatisfactory, 
for  after  the  fowl  is  cured  it  usually  takes  a  little  longer  time  to 
get  her  back  into  laying  condition.  The  preventive  method  of  treat- 
ment is  the  safest  and  most  economical. 

For  this  reason  importance  should  be  attached  to  sanitation. 
The  pens  should  be  thoroughly  sprayed  with  a  disinfecting  solu- 
tion or  whitewashed  at  least  twice  a  year.  It  is  advisable  to  spray 
the  perches  and  nest  boxes  frequently  during  warm  weather.  As 
soon  as  the  litter  becomes  damp  or  filthy,  replace  it.  Use  the  drop- 
pings board  underneath  the  perches  and  remove  the  droppings  at 
least  once  a  week,  always  sprinkling  coal  ashes  or  land  plaster  on  the 
clean  boards  and  again  over  the  droppings  once  or  twice  between 
cleanings.  This  practice  not  only  keeps  the  pen  cleaner  and  sweeter, 
but  makes  it  easier  to  clean  the  droppings  board  and  greatly  increases 
the  value  of  the  manure  because  it  absorbs  the  liquid  and  retains 
the  nitrogen.  Provide  a  dust  wallow  in  which  the  fowls  can  remove 
the  scurf  from  their  bodies  and  fight  their  body  lice.  For  disin- 
fecting with  whitewash,  the  addition  of  one  pint  of  crude  carbolic 
acid  to  every  two  gallons  of  the  mixture  makes  it  much  more  effec- 
tive in  destroying  both  animal  parasites  and  bacteria.  For  spraying, 
a  solution  of  three  parts  kerosene  and  one  part  crude  carbolic  acid, 
gives  excellent  results. 

BLACK  HEAD  is  a  disease  common  and  fatal  to  young  turkeys 
and  quite  serious  among  chickens.     It  is  usually  recognized  in  the 


DISEASES  OF  POULTRY.  69 

turkey  by  the  stunted  growth  and  emaciated  condition  of  the  body. 
Internal  examination  usually  discloses  large,  discolored  diseased 
areas  on  the  liver  and  greatly  enlarger  cseca  (blind  intestines).  If 
recognized  in  time  and  careful,  sanitary  conditions  of  feeding  and 
brooding  are  provided,  many  of  the  afflicted  chicks  can  be  saved. 
Sour  skim-milk  has  been  found  quite  effective  in  checking  the 
disease.  After  one  experience  with  the  disease,  it  will  be  readily 
conceded  that  the  preventive  method  is  most  satisfactory.  In  hatch- 
ing, use  incubators  or  strong,  disease-free  hens,  and  wash  the  eggs  in 
95  per  cent  alcohol  before  setting.  Furthermore,  since  the  disease 
commonly  spreads  through  ground  infection,  the  newly  hatched 
brood  should  be  taken  to  ground  not  commonly  used  by  either 
turkeys  or  hens.  Here  they  should  be  brooded  in  carefully  disin- 
fected quarters  and  their  coops  frequently  moved  to  fresh  places.  If 
hens  are  used  to  brood  the  chicks,  strong,  healthy  individuals,  shovvr- 
ing  no  evidence  of  having  had  the  disease,  should  be  chosen.  Should 
the  hen  have  the  disease,  it  may  be  transmitted  to  the  young.  The 
older  chickens  should  not  be  encouraged  to  join  with  the  later 
hatches  while  feeding,  but  should  be  fed  elsewhere  and  their  place 
of  feeding  changed  from  time  to  time,  to  prevent  contamination. 

BLEEDING  FROM  THE  COMB.— In  cold  weather  it  is  not 
uncommon,  especially  among  large  comb  breeds,  for  a  laying  pullet 
to  bleed  to  death  from  an  injury  or  a  crack  on  the  comb.  The 
blood  being  started  from  either  of  these  causes  continues  to  flow, 
both  on  account  of  frequent  shaking  of  the  head  and  because  of  the 
slow  coagulation  of  blood  on  a  very  cold  day.  If  this  flow  is  not 
speedily  stopped,  the  loss  of  blood  and  consequent  exhaustion,  to- 
gether with  the  cold,  overcome  the  fowl.  As  soon  as  this  condition 
is  noticed,  remove  the  fowl  and  wash  the  comb  in  warm  water. 
This  is  usually  sufficient  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood,  but  if  not,  touch 
a  styptic  pencil  or  a  hot  iron  to  the  wound.  Before  returning  the 
fowl  to  the  pen,  grease  the  comb  with  vaseline. 

BLINDNESS. — There  are  at  least  three  causes  for  blindness 
in  fowls :  1,  accident ;  2,  the  effects  of  another  disease ;  and  3,  a 
parasite.  When  accidental,  the  fowl  is  usually  blind  in  one  eye  only. 
There  is  no  economic  treatment.  The  inflamed  part  should  be  bathed 
in  a  weak  solution  of  boracic  acid  and  greased  with  vaseline  in  order 
to  effect  a  speedy  healing  of  the  sore.  The  most  common  form  of 
blindness  closely  follows  or  accompanies  another  disease.  When  due 
to  roup  a  swelling  among  the  tissues  of  the  eye,  caused  by  the  hard- 
ening of  the  mucus  secretions  of  the  head  and  eyes,  destroys  the 
sight.  When  roup  has  progressed  to  this  stage,  there  is  little  profit 
in  treating  it.     There  is  also  an  eye  worm  or  parasite  which  infects 


70  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

poultry,  causing  inflammation  of  the  eye  and  occasional  blindness. 
This  parasite  can  be  removed  by  surgical  means  only.  The  wound 
should  be  bathed  with  a  weak  solution  of  boracic  acid  and  kept 
greased  with  vaseline  until  healed. 

BUMBLEFOOT. — Bumblefoot  is  a  term  commonly  applied 
to  the  condition  when  an  injury  has  resulted  in  the  formation  of  pus 
in  the  fleshy  part  of  the  foot.  The  injury  may  be  received  in  various 
ways,  such  as  dropping  or  falling  from  a  high  perch  on  to  a  bare, 
cement  floor,  or  scratching  on  a  floor  of  cinders.  The  formation  of 
pus  causes  a  swelling  and  wears  down  the  tissues  until  it  breaks 
forth  either  at  the  upper  or  lower  surface.  A  scab  forms  over  this 
opening,  but  the  continued  formation  of  pus  repeatedly  forces  open 
the  wound. 

For  treatment,  remove  the  scab  or  lance  the  swollen  area  and 
thoroughly  clean  and  disinfect  the  cavity  with  a  dilute  solution  of 
carbolic  acid  or  hydrogen  peroxide.  Keep  the  sore  well  greased 
with  carbolated  vaseline  until  healed. 

CHICKEN  POX. — Although  in  cold  climates  chicken  pox  is 
almost  unknown,  it  is  all  too  common  in  the  Southern  States.  It 
is  easily  recognized  by  yellowish,  wartlike  sores  which  appear  on 
the  face  and  head  and  inside  the  mouth.  Often,  if  only  local,  these 
sores  spontaneously  dry  up  and  disappear,  but  if  they  extend  to 
other  portions  of  the  body,  the  fowl  becomes  emaciated  and  dies 
from  exhaustion.  Dr.  D.  E.  Salmon  in  "Diseases  of  Poultry," 
advises  feeding  sulphur  and  applying  a  sulphur  ointment  to  the 
nodules  twice  a  day.  Others  have  successfully  checked  the  disease, 
greasing  the  sores  with  carbolated  vaseline  or  with  glycerine,  con- 
taining two  per  cent,  of  carbolic  acid.  The  disease  is  communicable 
and  necessitates  thorough  disinfection.     See  communicable  diseases. 

CHOLERA. — It  is  a  common  error  for  the  layman  to  think 
that  every  disease  among  his  fowls,  which  manifests  itself  by  a 
looseness  of  the  bowels,  a  yellowish  discharge,  and  a  pale  or  yellow 
color  about  the  face  and  head,  is  cholera.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  this 
disease  is  common  only  in  the  warm  climates  and  is  rare  elsewhere. 
It  is  communicable  and  very  destructive.  Fowls  often  die  within 
a  few  days  after  being  exposed  to  the  disease,  even  before  they  are 
suspected  of  being  stricken.  In  other  cases  it  takes  on  a  chronic 
form.  It  requires  a  bacteriological  examination  definitely  to  recog- 
nize the  disease.  Scientists  have  failed  to  find  a  cure  for  it. 
Thorough  disinfection  of  the  entire  plant  and  a  rigid  separation  of 
the  exposed  from  the  non-exposed  flocks  should  be  practiced.  See 
communicable  diseases. 


DISEASES  OF  POULTRY.  71 

COLDS. — The  first  indication  of  a  cold  is  a  snuffling  or  a 
rattling  in  the  throat.  Usually  the  secretions  which  cause  this 
sound  have  but  little,  if  any,  perceptible  odor.  A  cold  is  due  to 
exposure  to  conditions  under  which  the  body  has  difficulty  in  keep- 
ing its  normal  temperature.  Common  among  such  conditions  are 
crowding  at  night  by  young  stock,  which  have  outgrown  their  quar- 
ters, contact  with  damp  floors  and  filthy  houses,  and  especially, 
exposure  to  draughts  which  blow  on  the  fov/ls  while  they  are  work- 
ing or  roosting.  The  obvious  treatment  is  to  correct  those  conditions 
which  have  induced  the  cold,  to  disinfect  the  drinking  water  and, 
in  severe  cases,  to  spray  the  perches  as  suggested  in  the  treatment 
of  roup. 

CROP  COMPACTION.— Crop  compaction  is  usually  a  dog- 
ging of  the  outlet  of  the  crop  by  twisted  grass  or  rough  grain. 
Occasionally  the  ration  contains  too  much  middlings,  or  other  sticky 
foods,  fed  either  dry  or  moist,  which,  under  certain  conditions, 
bake  together  and  clog  the  passageway.  In  a  vain  effort  to  satisfy 
the  increased  appetite,  the  fowl  distends  its  crop  with  food.  In  a 
few  days,  unless  the  obstruction  is  removed,  the  fowl  shows  signs 
of  weakness  and  eventually  dies  of  starvation.  A  common  way  of 
removing  the  contents  of  the  crop  is  to  give  several  teaspoonfuls 
of  castor  oil,  at  the  same  time  massaging  the  crop  till  the  contents 
soften.  Then  hold  the  fowl  by  the  feet  and  gradually  work  the 
contents  of  the  crop  out  through  the  mouth.  Sometimes  crop  com- 
paction cannot  be  relieved  in  this  way.  It  is  then  necessary  to  cut 
into  the  crop.  After  the  contents  are  thoroughly  removed,  the  crop 
should  be  carefully  washed  with  a  weak  solution  of  boracic  acid 
and  the  edges  of  the  wound  drawn  together  and  sewed  once  or 
twice  with  silk  thread.  If  an  operation  is  necessary,  it  should  be 
made  before  the  fowl  has  become  badly  weakened  from  the  lack 
of  food. 

COMMUNICABLE  DISEASES.— There  are  a  number  of  com- 
municable diseases,  such  as  cholera  and  diphtheretic  roup,  which 
are  very  difficult  to  treat  successfull}^  In  fact,  it  is  almost  useless 
to  attempt  a  cure  of  the  stricken  fowl.  The  most  that  can  be  done 
is  to  keep  the  mortality  as  low  as  possible  by  the  rigid  culling  and 
burning  up  of  diseased  individuals,  and  the  thorough  disinfection  of 
their  pens,  and  especially  of  the  eating  and  drinking  utensils.  It 
is  frequently  to  the  owner's  advantage,  unless  the  stock  be  highly 
prized,  to  kill  and  burn  every  individual  showing  symptoms  of  the 
disease  and  to  dispose  of  the  healthy  ones  of  the  flock  on  the  public 
market.  This  practice  is  especially  advisable  when  there  are  several 
flocks  in  houses  well  scattered.     This  radical  practice,  together  with 


73  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

thorough  disinfection  of  the  pens  where  the  disease  has  not  yet 
appeared,  will  prevent  the  spread  of  the  disease  throughout  the 
plant.  One  of  the  best  reasons  for  such  wholesale  disposal  of  the 
stock  is  that  many  communicable  diseases  are  carried  in  a  dormant 
state  in  the  partially  cured  individual  until  conditions  are  right  for 
another  outbreak.  When  all  stock  is  sold  and  the  houses  care- 
fully disinfected,  new  stock  can  be  put  into  these  quarters  without 
fear  of  a  recurrence  of  the  disease  unless  it  be  brought  in  through 
a  bird  purchased  elsewhere,  or  through  fowls  exposed  to  the  disease 
at  a  poultry  show.  The  houses  occupied  by  diseased  fowls  should 
not  be  used  again  until  carefully  disinfected.  All  other  fowls  should 
be  kept  off  the  ground  on  which  the  diseased  fowls  ranged  until 
the  following  Spring,  at  which  time  the  ground  should  be  cultivated. 
Chickens  hatched  from  these  fowls,  before  or  at  the  time  of  their 
sickness,  can  be  brooded  on  separate  land  with  safety  and  be  used 
to  refill  those  houses  emptied  by  the  disease. 

DIARRHCEA. — Diarrhoea  in  some  form  accompanies  and  is  a 
symptom  of  many  common  communicable  diseases.  Because  of  this 
fact,  the  layman  interprets  diarrhoea  as  the  indication  of  a  dangerous 
disease.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  diarrhoea  is  more  often  the  result  of 
indigestion.  It  is  caused  by  over-consumption  of  rich,  highly  stimu- 
lating foods,  by  tainted  meat,  musty  grain,  green  or  milky  grain  in 
the  stalk,  irregular  feeding  of  green  foods  in  the  Winter,  excessive 
amounts  of  green  cut  bone,  or  a  stale  or  irregular  supply  of  water. 
It  may  also  follow  the  sudden,  radical  changes  in  diet.  The  extent 
of  the  trouble  is  limited  only  by  the  amount  of  unwholesome  food 
eaten.  The  best  treatment  of  such  diarrhcsa  is  to  remove  the  irritant 
or  to  shut  in  the  fowls  from  it,  giving  them  a  regulating  ration. 
They  will  soon  readjust  themselves.  Diarrhoea  frequently  follows  a 
change  to  hot  weather,  which  quickly  taints  meat  and  other  foods 
which  the  fowls  pick  up,  and,  in  addition,  makes  the  process  of 
digestion  more  sluggish.  At  such  times  the  fowls  have  great  diffi- 
culty in  readjusting  themselves,  even  when  their  rations  are  better 
balanced.  It  then  becomes  necessary  to  provide  food  in  a  form 
which  will  be  quickly  and  easily  digested  and  assimilated.  This 
ration  should  be  composed  of  fresh  and  finely  ground  grains,  mois- 
tened with  buttermilk  or  sour  skim-milk.  One  such  feeding  should 
be  given  daily,  in  addition  to  their  regular  ration.  Clabbered  or 
sour  skim-milk  is  also  valuable  for  drinking.  They  should  have 
fresh  water  all  the  time.  General  cleanliness  and  occasional  disin- 
fection is  advised  at  such  times.  Diarrhoea  brought  about  by  the 
presence  of  a  communicable  disease  cannot  be  treated  in  this  way. 
See  communicable  diseases. 


DISEASES  OF  POULTRY.  73 

BLOODY  EGGS. — Objection  is  always  raised  to  eggs  con- 
taining blood  spots.  They  are  not  due  to  deterioration  of  the  eggs 
or  to  disease,  as  many  people  conjecture.  However,  since  there  is 
this  aversion  to  using  such  eggs,  it  is  well  to  check  their  produc- 
tion. The  presence  of  the  blood  is  due  to  a  hemorrhage  of  the  blood 
vessels  in  the  glands  of  the  oviduct.  The  hemorrhage  is  the  result 
of  fright,  injury,  or  forced  feeding,  which  overworks  the  blood 
vessels  carrying  supplies  to  the  organs  of  secretion.  Blood  spots 
are  usually  found  in  the  albumen,  since  the  glands  secreting  this 
material  are  delicately  responsive  to  forced  feeding.  If  the  fowls 
are  producing  bloody  eggs  in  numbers,  the  rich  meat  materials 
should  be  decreased  and  green  food  increased.  Exercise  should  be 
encouraged  and  disturbing  conditions  eliminated.  Occasionally  an 
individual  hen,  through  weakness  or  disease,  will  produce  bloody 
eggs  regularly.  Such  a  fowl  should  be  removed  from  the  pen  and 
fed  carefully  until  her  body  regains  its  normal  condition. 

EGG-BOUND. — Pullets,  producing  their  first  eggs,  and  over-fat, 
weak  or  injured  hens,  often  become  egg-bound.  The  most  common 
symptoms  of  this  trouble  are  frequent  trips  to  the  nest  and  much 
squatting  and  straining.  In  extreme  cases  the  fowl  will  crawl 
along  with  her  body  upright  and  her  tail  dragging.  Fowls  in  this 
condition  usually  die  from  exhaustion  unless  relief  is  speedily  given. 
It  is  advisable  to  remove  the  afflicted  bird  to  a  quiet  place  and 
inject  sv/eet  oil  into  the  cloaca  and  oviduct.  This  will  relieve  the 
fever  in  these  organs,  encourage  proper  secretions  and  assist  the 
fowl  in  laying  her  egg  normally.  Unwise  forcing  of  pullets  to 
early  egg  production  and  breeding  for  large-sized  eggs  are  the  com- 
mon causes  among  pullets.  When  this  trouble  is  prevalent  among 
mature  fowls,  it  should  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  low  physical 
vigor  and  attention  given  to  feeding  well  balanced  rations  in  a  v/ay 
which  will  encourage  exercise  and  regulation  of  diet, 

EGG  EATING  HABIT.— An  accident  is  very  often  accountable 
for  starting  the  vice  of  eating  eggs.  The  accident  occurs  when  a 
heavy  fowl  drops  on  to  an  egg  in  a  deep  nest,  or  in  flying  out  of 
the  nest,  especially  when  frightened,  kicks  an  egg  against  the  side 
of  the  box.  The  first  hen  to  observe  the  broken  egg  eats  the  con- 
tents and  begins  scratching  in  the  nesting  material  for  more.  Another 
egg  is  broken,  as  a  result,  and  the  habit  started.  Such  accidents 
occur  more  commonly  when  the  egg  shells  are  weak  and  easily 
broken.  At  this  time,  also,  the  fov/1  is  most  eager  for  the  egg  and 
its  shell,  since  her  body  is  deficient  in  shell-forming  materials.  The 
habit  is  seldom  acquired  when  the  body  health  is  good.  This 
absence   of  shell-forming   secretions   is   not   necessarily   due   to  the 


74  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

absence  of  lime  and  other  minerals  in  the  ration,  although  without 
lime  in  the  form  of  oyster  shells  or  lime  grits,  this  cessation  of  the 
shell-forming  secretions  would  result.  But  this  condition  is  fre- 
quently the  result  also  of  over-feeding  and  consequent  lack  of  exer- 
cise, which  disorganizes  the  organs  of  secretion  and  produces  gen- 
eral weakness  and  debility.  The  obvious  treatment  is  to  correct  the 
method  of  feeding  and  to  provide  sufficient  mineral  and  animal  food 
to  supply  the  body  needs.  The  use  of  china  eggs  or  eggs  filled  with 
red  pepper  and  mustard  is  not  highly  recommended,  although  occa- 
sionally they  are  effective.  In  extreme  cases  a  special  nest  box  can 
be  used.  Such  a  nest  is  made  by  padding  the  center  and  edges  of  a 
box  about  a  foot  square  and  eight  inches  deep,  and  loosely  fastening 
over  the  top  a  burlap  sack  with  a  hole  in  the  center.  The  tg^  rolls 
into  the  box  beneath  as  soon  as  laid.  When  using  this  box,  place  it 
in  the  position  occupied  by  the  regular  nest. 

AN  EGG  WITHIN  AN  EGG.— Several  instances  have  been 
reported  of  finding  within  an  apparently  normal  egg  a  second  fully 
formed  egg.  The  production  of  such  abnormal  eggs  is  due  to  injury, 
to  fright  or  to  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  oviduct,  which  sends 
back  up  the  oviduct  an  G.gg,  ready  to  be  laid.  In  due  course  the  &gg 
again  starts  down  the  oviduct  and  stimulates  a  secretion  of  albu- 
men and  later  of  calcareous  materials,  which  enclose  the  original 
egg  in  another  layer  of  albumen  and  put  a  shell  around  the  whole. 
Such  an  Q.gg  rarely  has  a  yolk  in  the  second  formation,  unless,  by 
chance,  a  yolk  sac  emptied  its  contents  into  the  oviduct  at  the  time 
the  first  egg  was  forced  back. 

EGG  WITH  TWO  YOLKS.— There  are  two  possible  explana- 
tions for  the  formation  of  double  yolked  eggs.  The  usual  one  is 
that  during  a  period  of  heavy  production  two  yolks  sacs  deposit  their 
yolks  in  the  oviduct  at  so  nearly  the  same  time  that  both  are  encased 
in  the  same  albumen  and  shell.  The  more  feasible  explanation  is 
that  the  two  yolks  are  originally  contained  in  the  same  yolk  sac  and 
consequently  are  deposited  in  the  oviduct  at  the  same  time.  This 
theory  is  supported  by  embryologists,  who  have  found  the  two  yolks 
enclosed  in  one  sac  in  microscopical  sections  of  the  ovary.  If  incu- 
bated, double  yolked  eggs,  as  a  rule,  do  not  hatch. 

^  FATTY  DEGENERATION.— When  over-fed  fowls  become 
fat,  sh-"ggish  and  inactive,  a  general  breaking  down  of  their  body 
tissues  gradually  takes  place.  This  is  called  fatty  degeneration. 
With  the  heavier  varieties  this  condition  is  commonly  indicated  by 
the  accumulation  of  fat  in  a  large  bunch  under  the  abdomen,  causing 
their  fluff  to  hang  low  In  so  debilitated  a  condition,  the  fowl  is 
unable  to  produce  the  greatest  possible  number  of  eggs  and  those 


DISEASES  OF  POULTRY.  75 

eggs,  which  are  produced  lack,  when  incubated,  the  strength  to 
develop  normal,  healthy,  livable  chicks.  Soft  shelled  eggs  and  egg 
eating  habits  may  well  be  feared  in  such  a  state  of  health.  Fowls 
which  have  broken  down  under  forced  feeding  or  over-feeding  can- 
not entirely  recover  their  normal  condition,  but  judicious  feeding  on 
wholesome  grains,  with  plenty  of  green  food  and  exercise  will  in 
a  great  measure  restore  their  health. 

FEATHER  PULLING.— One  of  the  most  distressing  and 
unmanageable  vices  of  fowls  is  feather  pulling.  It  starts  through 
fighting  or  accidents  and  continues  for  lack  of  sufficient  mineral  and 
animal  fool.  The  vice  spreads  rapidly  among  the  fowls  in  a  flock. 
It  is  seldom  acquired  in  properly  managed  flocks.  This  vice  is  the 
result  of  erroneous  methods  of  feeding  and  management,  similar  to 
the  conditions  which  encourage  egg  eating.  Give  the  fowls  as  much 
liberty  and  freedom  as  possible.  Increase  the  amount  of  animal  food 
in  the  ration.  If  the  pens  are  small,  it  sometimes  becomes  necessary 
to  change  the  fowls  to  a  different  house,  or  to  harness  their  bills 
with  feather  pulling  bits,  which  prevent  them  from  getting  a  grip 
on  the  feather. 

FROSTED  COMBS  AND  WATTLES.— On  extremely  cold 
nights,  unless  warm  roosting  places  are  provided,  the  fowls'  combs 
and  v\^attles  will  get  frosted.  The  resulting  pain  stops  the  hens  from 
laying,  and,  in  severe  cases,  even  kills  them.  When  frosted,  these 
appendages  swell  up  and  turn  to  a  purple  color.  The  frosted  parts 
should  be  thawed  out  with  ice  or  snow  and  greased  with  vaseline. 
It  is  often  well  to  cut  away  the  frosted  parts  entirely,  using  a  hot 
iron  to  heal  the  wound. 

GAPES. — The  frequent  gasping  for  breath  by  chickens  suffering 
with  .parasitic  worms  in  the  windpipe  is  called  gapes  and  the  worm, 
the  gape  worm.  The  difficulty  of  eating,  combined  with  the  weaken- 
ing effect  of  the  parasites,  stunts  the  growth  of  the  chickens.  Its 
feathers  become  soiled,  torn  and  ruffled  for  lack  of  proper  nourish- 
ment. The  worms  and  their  eggs  are  coughed  up  by  the  chickens 
on  to  their  food  or  into  the  drinking  water,  where  other  chickens 
consume  them.  In  this  way  the  parasite  is  transmitted.  A  common 
treatment  of  the  individual  is  to  thrust  a  twisted  horsehair  or  stiff 
thread,  saturated  in  turpentine,  down  its  windpipe.  The  turpentine 
loosens  and  kills  the  worms.  Those  which  are  not  withdrawn  with 
the  horsehair  are  coughed  out.  A  second  method  of  treatment, 
somewhat  more  dangerous,  but  easier  and  quicker,  is  to  place  about 
25  chickens  in  a  box  covered  with  burlap  and  to  surcharge  the  air 
with  the  fumes  of  burning  tobacco  stems.  The  fumes  can  be  sup- 
plied through  an  opening  in  the  bottom  of  the  box,  this  opening 


76  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

being  fitted  over  a  firebox  containing  the  burning  stems.  The 
chickens  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  they  show  signs  of  exhaus- 
tion. The  fumes  overcome  or  even  kill  the  worms.  Their  hold  on 
the  windpipe  is  relaxed  and  they  are  coughed  up.  Ground  on  which 
chickens  suffering  with  gapes  have  ranged  becomes  infected  and 
should  not  be  used  in  succeeding  years.  The  trouble  can  be  mini- 
mized by  practicing  rigid  disinfection  and  cleanliness  in  the  coops, 
yards  and  eating  places.  Feeding  strong  onions  or  garlic,  chopped 
and  mixed  with  other  food  and  fed  before  the  worms  gain  a  foot- 
hold, is  beneficial  in  keeping  down  the  growth  and  development  of 
the  parasite.  Early  hatching  also  is  advised.  Keeping  the  chicks 
on  a  board  floor — away  from  all  soil,  will  prevent  the  trouble. 

GOING  LIGHT. — This  is  a  term  commonly  applied  to  a  bac- 
terial disease  which  interferes  with  the  assimilation  of  the  food  and 
allows  the  body  to  starve  to  death.  The  symptom  is  a  gradual  loss 
of  flesh,  which  results  eventually,  in  v/eakness,  debility  and  starva- 
tion. The  disease,  although  communicable,  spreads  slowly.  Fowls 
thus  afflicted  should  be  destroyed  and  their  pens  disinfected.  Strict 
cleanliness  will  aid  in  warding  off  further  outbreaks. 

LEG  WEAKNESS.— There  are  two  different  kinds  of  leg 
weakness.  One  is  rheumatism,  caused  by  dampness  and  insufficient 
ventilation  in  the  pen.  This  form  is  remedied  by  correcting  the 
method  of  housing  and  ventilating.  The  other  form  is  due  to  over- 
feeding and  lack  of  exercise.  This  combination  of  mismanagement 
makes  the  fowls  over-fat  and  heavy  and  their  muscles,  at  the  same 
time,  become  soft  and  flabby.  Their  physical  condition  is  such  that 
a  marked  increase  in  humidity  or  any  extra  demand  made  on  their 
body  debilitates  and  partially  paralyzes  their  legs.  Cleanliness,  more 
careful  methods  of  feeding  and  increased  range  will  overcome  this 
weakness. 

LICE. — There  are  many  kinds  of  lice  which  are  common  among 
domestic  fowls.  They  have  the  same  general  characteristics,  how- 
ever, and  all  are  combated  in  the  same  way.  Lice  may  remain  on 
the  body  of  the  fowl  both  day  and  night.  They  are  also  commonly 
found  on  the  perches  and  nest  boxes.  This  necessitates  treating 
both  the  fowls  and  the  perches.  A  very  effective  spray  for  the 
perches  is  a  solution  of  one  part  crude  carbolic  acid  and  three  parts 
kerosene.  It  can  be  applied  with  a  brush  or,  preferably,  with  a 
pump  and  spray,  which  will  force  the  mixture  into  the  cracks  and 
crevices,  where  the  lice  accumulate.  The  fowls  can  be  treated  by 
dusting  a  fine  powder  into  their  feathers.  The  dust  fills  up  the 
breathing  pores  on  the  body  of  the  louse  and  suft'ocates  it.     Such  a 

pQw4yr  is  mQr^  eiective  if  it  contains  a  drying  mi  burning  ingred- 


DISEASES  OF  POULTRY.  77 

lent,  or  one  giving  off  fumes.  R.  C.  Lawry,  while  an  assistant  in 
the  Department  of  Poultry  Husbandry  at  the  New  York  State 
College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University,  formulated  an  exceed- 
ingly effective  homemade  lice  powder.  It  is  prepared  as  follows : 
One-fourth  pint  of  crude  carbolic  acid,  mixed  with  three-fourths 
pint  gasoline  is  thoroughly  stirred  into  2^  pounds  plaster  of  paris. 
The  whole  is  forced  through  a  sieve  to  break  up  the  lumps.  It  is 
then  allowed  to  dry  in  the  air  and  when  dry  is  tightly  bottled.  The 
stock  mixture  remains  effective  indefinitely.  To  apply  this  powder, 
make  nail  holes  in  the  top  of  a  tin  can  and  use  the  can  as  a  shaker. 
The  fowl  should  be  held  by  the  legs  with  its  head  down.  In  this 
position  the  feathers  fall  away  from  the  body  and  readily  receive 
the  powder,  making  it  easy  to  work  it  down  to  the  skin,  by  ruffling 
the  feathers  with  the  hand.  This  treatment  is  especially  recom- 
mended for  setting  hens.  Ten  days  later  the  dusting  should  be 
repeated  in  order  to  destroy  the  lice  which  are  hatched  out  after 
the  first  application.  It  is  not  often  necessary  to  dust  every  indi- 
vidual of  an  entire  pen  of  fowls.  The  economical  way  to  keep  a 
pen  free  from  lice  is  to  spray  the  perches  when  necessary  and  to 
provide  a  dust  v/allow  of  coal  ashes,  land  plaster  or  road  dust,  in 
which  the  fowls  can  wallow  and  kill  body  lice.  This  dust  wallov/ 
should  be  in  a  warm,  dry  part  of  the  pen,  so  as  to  attract  the  fowls 
to  it.  A  small  amount  of  this  material  can  be  scattered  on  and  under 
the  perches,  and  this  part  of  the  pen  kept  freer  from  lice. 

LIMBER  NECK. — The  general  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  a 
fowl,  especially  those  in  the  neck,  produces  a  condition  known  as 
limber  neck.  The  fowl  is  unable  to  lift  its  head  from  the  ground  and, 
in  fact,  has  very  little  power  of  locom.otion.  The  cause  is  usually 
directly  attributable  to  ptomaine  poisoning,  resulting  from  eating 
decomposed  meat  or  flesh.  The  disease  is  consequently  confined, 
usually,  to  the  warmer  months  of  the  year  and  is  most  prevalent 
in  the  Southern  States.  The  disease  is  not  necessarily  fatal  nor  is  it 
communicable.  Relief  quickly  follows  any  treatment  which  speedily 
flushes  the  digestive  S3^stem.  The  usual  doses  are  Epsom  salts  or 
one  grain  of  calomel.  Recovery  has  followed  the  use  of  a  simple 
tonic  known  as  the  Douglas  Mixture,  which  can  be  used  to  advan- 
tage in  all  digestive  troubles.  A  stock  solution  of  the  Douglass 
Mixture  is  made  by  dissolving  one-half  pound  sulphate  of  iron  in 
a  gallon  of  water  and  adding  one-half  ounce  sulphuric  acid.  The 
clear  liquid  is  used  in  the  proportion  of  one  pint  to  a  pail  of  water. 

During  the  v/arm  months  all  dead  or  dying  fowls  or  animals 
should  be  removed  from  the  yards  or  pens  at  once  and  no  tainted  or 
fly-blpwn  m?at  given  to  them. 


78  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

MITES. — The  mite  is  another  external  parasite  of  the  fowl, 
which  sucks  the  blood  at  night  and  returns  to  the  perch  before 
morning,  remaining  there  during  the  day.  It  is  only  when  mites 
have  accumulated  in  large  numbers  and  are  unable  to  get  enough 
blood  during  the  night  that  they  remain  on  the  fowl  during  the  day. 
The  most  common  variety  is  red,  and  when  these  gather  in  numbers, 
they  make  a  reddish  black  spot.  The  mite  is  killed  by  the  direct 
application  of  a  burning  solution.  They  withstand  ordinary  sprays 
better  than  lice  can.  However,  the  solution  of  one-fourth  pint 
crude  carbolic  acid  and  three-fourths  pint  kerosene  has  been  found 
very  destructive. 

ROUP. — The  term  roup  is  used  to  cover  several  distinct  diseases 
of  the  throat  and  head,  some  of  which  are  very  dangerous  and  diffi- 
cult to  cure,  while  others  are  comparatively  simple.  The  most  com- 
mon form  of  roup  is  an  exaggerated  cold,  which  causes  a  fevered 
condition  and  stimulates  the  nasal  secretions.  These  secretions  have 
a  strong,  pungent  odor.  They  stop  up  the  nasal  passages,  producing 
a  rattling  sound  when  the  fowl  breathes.  Many  times  this  sound  is 
heard  when  the  secretions  are  not  noticeable  in  either  the  nasal  or 
throat  passages.  In  such  instances,  look  for  a  soiled  place  under 
the  bow  of  the  wing,  where  the  fowl  often  puts  its  head.  The  odor 
alone,  however,  is  sufficient  indication  of  the  disease.  The  cause 
of  this  kind  of  roup  is  exposure  for  a  prolonged  period  to  those 
conditions  and  surroundings  which  produce  colds.  It  is  thought 
that  this  disease  is  not  communicable  from  one  fowl  to  another,  but 
spreads  because  conditions  are  favorable  to  the  development  of  the 
disease  in  many  individuals.  If  the  disease  is  allowed  to  run  its 
course,  the  fevered  condition  hardens  the  nasal  secretions  into  a 
cheesy  substance  which  accumulates  in  the  tissues  of  the  head,  caus- 
ing the  eyes  or  other  parts  of  the  face,  to  bulge  out.  When  this  stage 
is  reached,  the  irritation  and  fever  becomes  so  great  that  the  fowl 
soon  dies  from  weakness  and  exhaustion.  It  is  quite  useless  to 
attempt  to  cure  at  an  advanced  stage.  Treatment  should  be  given 
during  the  earlier  stages.  It  is  obvious  that  the  first  step  is  to  rectify 
those  conditions  which  encourage  the  disease.  In  addition  to  making 
the  pens  clean  and  dry,  the  following  simple  remedies  can  be  used : 
One  ounce  permanganate  of  potash  in  three  pints  of  v/ater;  use  one 
pint  of  this  stock  solution  in  every  three  or  four  pints  of  drinking 
water.  This  will  serve  to  disinfect  the  month  and  throat.  It  can 
also  be  administered,  in  its  undiluted  form,  as  a  head  dip  To  do 
this,  grasp  the  legs  and  wings  of  the  fowl  in  one  hand  3.nd  the 
back  of  its  head  in  the  other.  Thrust  the  bill  into  the  solution 
nearly  to  the  eyes  and  hold  it  there  long  enough  so  that  the  fowl 


DISEASES  OF  POULTRY.  79 

will  draw  in  some  of  the  solution  while  striving  to  breathe.  Fifteen 
to  twenty  seconds  is  usually  long  enough.  This  cuts  and  loosens 
the  accumulated  mucus  so  that  the  fowl  can  shake  it  out.  Another 
simple  but  very  effective  and  wholesale  treatment  of  roup  is  to 
paint  or  spray  the  perches  with  any  coal  tar  product  which  gives  off 
penetrating  fumes.  These  fumes  are  breathed  by  the  fowls  all  night 
and  during  this  long  period  are  effective  in  loosening  up  the  nasal 
secretions  and  in  checking  the  disease.  Such  treatment  will  serve 
also  to  check  cankerous  and  diphtheretic  roup,  which  are  communi- 
cable forms  of  this  disease,  but,  in  most  instances,  it  fails  to  effect 
a  cure  of  either.  The  disease  germs  of  these  forms  of  roup  develop 
more  rapidly  and  are  not  so  dependent  upon  damp  and  unsanitary 
conditions.  The  germ  is  usually  introduced  through  newly  pur- 
chased fowls  or  through  exposure  to  the  disease  at  public  exhibi- 
tions or  competitions.  Cankerous  roup  is  accompanied  by  and  takes 
its  name  from  the  sores  in  the  mouth  and  on  the  head.  For  treat- 
ment, see  communicable  diseases, 

SCALY  LEGS. — The  term  scaly  leg  is  applied  to  a  condition  of 
the  fowl's  shanks,  in  which  the  scales  have  become  roughened, 
swollen  and  filthy.  A  small  parasite,  working  underneath  the  scales 
on  the  shank,  causes  this  roughness.  The  parasite  spreads  by 
crawling  along  the  perch  until  it  reaches  another  fowl.  A  simple 
treatment  is  to  soften  the  shanks  in  warm  water  and  carefully 
remove  the  filth  from  underneath  the  scales.  This  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  thorough  washing  with  five  per  cent  carbolic  acid,  which 
kills  the  parasite.  The  shank  should  then  be  well  greased  with 
carbolated  vaseline  to  keep  the  wound  soft  and  clean  until  it  heals. 

VENT  GLEET. — A  communicable  disease  which  affects  the 
cloaca  or  vent  is  called  vent  gleet.  This  disease  greatly  irritates  and 
inflames  the  vent,  producing  a  sense  of  fullness  and  causing  the  fowl 
to  attempt  frequent  voidings.  A  diarrhoea  and  a  mucous  discharge 
from  the  vent  acconjpany  this  condition.  The  fluff  becomes  soiled 
and  looks  filthy.  This  discharge  has  a  strong,  offensive  odor.  If 
not  treated  at  once,  ulcers  develop  on  the  skin  near  the  vent  and 
the  inflammation  extends  into  the  oviduct.  At  this  stage  the  disease 
becomes  critical.  For  treatment,  the  male  should  be  removed  from 
the  pen  until  the  trouble  ceases,  since  he  is  mainly  responsible  for 
spreading  the  disease.  The  afflicted  fowl  should  also  be  taken  to 
quiet  surroundings,  where  it  can  receive  medical  treatment.  The 
principle  on  which  a  cure  is  effected  is  to  cleanse  the  vent  and  fluff 
daily  with  warm  water,  to  which  a  few  drops  of  carbolic  acid  are 
added,  following  with  an  injection  of  sweet  oil  or  a  greasing  with 
vaseline.     This   also  should  contain  a   few  drops  of  carbolic  acid. 


80  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

The  afflicted  bird  should  be  kept  in  a  warm,  protected  place  and  fed 
on  soft,  nourishing  foods,  until  it  is  strong  enough  to  return  to  the 
pen. 

VERTIGO. — Congestion  of  the  brain  is  readily  recognized  by 
the  giddy  actions  of  the  fowl  and  a  habit  of  bending  the  head  as 
far  backward  as  possible.  The  bird  assumes  this  attitude  when 
frightened  in  order  to  relieve  the  sudden  blood  pressure  on  the  brain. 
The  disease  is  usually  found  among  over-fat,  plethoric  fowls.  It  is 
one  of  the  evils  resulting  from  over-feeding.  Irritation  from  worms 
in  the  intestines  will  also  produce  it.  A  few  such  cases  should  warn 
the  feeder  to  exercise  greater  care  in  his  method  of  feeding  and 
the  kinds  of  food  provided.  For  individual  treatment.  Dr.  D.  E. 
Salmon  suggests  cooling  the  head  of  the  fowl  with  ice  until  it  is 
thoroughly  chilled  and  giving  one  dose  of  either  thirty  grains  of 
Epsom  salts  or  one  and  one-half  grains  of  calomel.  In  case  the 
congestion  is  caused  by  intestinal  parasites,  treat  to  remove  the 
cause. 

WHITE  DIARRHOEA  IN  CHICKENS.— The  term  white 
diarrhoea  is  used  indiscriminately  to  apply  to  a  large  number  of 
chicken  diseases  and  troubles,  including  indigestion,  pneumonia, 
coccidiosis,  bacillary  white  diarrhoea,  aspergilosis,  and  others,  all  of 
which  produce  very  similar  external  symptoms,  prominent  among 
which  is  some  form  of  diarrhoea.  These  diseases  result  from  various 
causes.  Some  of  them  are  produced  directly  by  specific  organisms, 
whereas  others  are  the  result  of  erroneous  feeding  and  brooding,  or 
are  due  partially  to  the  careless  selection  and  management  of  the 
breeding  stock.  The  method  of  incubation  also  may  be  responsible 
for  some  weakness.  Very  little  can  be  done  to  cure  chickens  suffer- 
ing with  this  disease.  The  sick  ones  should  be  removed  and  burned, 
the  brooders  and  feeding  places  kept  sanitary,  and  the  chickens 
given  wholesome,  nourishing  food,  free  from  much  rich  material. 
Clabbered  milk  is  destructive  to  certain  bacteria*  and  should  be  fed 
liberally.  A  few  crystals  of  potassium  permanganate  dropped  into 
the  drinking  water  free  it  from  germs  and  make  it  an  internal 
disinfectant.  The  preventive  treatment  is  the  best  safeguard  against 
these  diseases  and  troubles.  Exercise  the  greatest  care  in  selecting 
the  breeding  stock,  choosing  strong,  vigorous,  healthy  yearling  or 
two-year-old  fowls.  Use  a  method  of  feeding  which  will  force  them 
to  exercise  while  obtaining  their  food.  This  practice,  in  connection 
with  feeding  a  variety  ration  of  hard  grains  and  succulent  food, 
will  do  more  than  anything  else  toward  keeping  their  bodies  in  a 
normal,  healthy  condition.  Eggs  from  such  fowls  will  produce 
Strong,  able  chickens,  capable  of  living  and  growing  under  ordinary 


DISEASES  OF  POULTRY.  81 

conditions.  It  is  comparatively  easy  to  raise  a  large  percentage  of 
chickens  from  strong,  healthy  stock,  but  even  a  good  feeder  has 
great  difficulty  in  rearing  vreak  chicks.  Practice  thorough  sanitation 
while  the  chicks  are  young  more  than  at  any  other  time.  Feed 
liberally,  but  do  not  allow  food  to  accumulate  in  the  brooder.  Make 
the  chicks  clean  it  up  between  each  feeding.  In  this  way  the  ordi- 
nary chick  troubles,  commonly  called  v/h.ite  diarrhoea,  will  be 
avoided.  Such  a  practice,  however,  does  not  entirely  prevent  the 
ravages  of  all.  This  is  especially  true  of  bacillary  white  diarrhoea, 
which  is,  apparently,  born  with  the  chick  and  is  usually  fatal  within 
the  first  two  or  three  weeks.  The  only  practical  treatment  of  such 
a  disease  is  to  replace  the  breeding  stock  with  disease-free  indi- 
viduals. Unfortunately,  it  requires  a  bacteriological  examination  to 
determine  the  presence  of  this  and  similar  diseases,  making  it  impos- 
sible for  the  layman  to  diagnose  the  trouble.  In  such  instances  he 
should  seek  the  aid  of  his  State  college  of  veterinary  science. 

WORMS. — There  are  a  large  number  of  species  of  parasitic 
worms  found  in  the  digestive  organs  of  the  fowl.  The  most  com- 
mon of  these  are  the  round  worm,  the  tape  worm,  and  a  small  worm, 
which  bores  into  the  walls  of  the  gizzard.  Fowls  infected  with 
worms  become  stupid  and  indifferent,  and  subject  to  sudden  fits  of 
wakefulness.  Their  appetite  often  becomes  poor  and  their  bodies 
show  emaciation.  Such  symptoms  are  sometimes  accompanied  by  a 
slight  diarrhoea.  For  positive  evidence,  post  mortem  a  dead  fowl 
and  examine  the  digestive  tract.  A  dose  of  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
essence  of  turpentine  is  generally  sufficient  to  dispose  of  .the  parasites. 
Powdered  areca  nut,  in  doses  of  30  to  40  grains,  is  advocated  by 
Zurn.  Dr.  Salmon  advises  mixing  a  teaspoonful  of  powdered  pome- 
granate root  bark  in  the  food  for  50  fowls,  following  with  a  purga- 
tive dose  of  two  teaspoonfuls  of  castor  oil. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
FEEDING  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

The  poultryman  has  frequently  been  referred  to  as  a  manufac- 
turer, with  laying  hens  and  growing  stock  for  macl;ine'^,  the  various 
poultry  feeds  the  raw  material,  and  eggs  and  meat  the  finished  pro- 
duct. Obviously  his  profits  will  depend  largely  on  two  things : — the 
use  of  raw  material  of  the  right  kind  and  in  the  right  condition,  and 
of  efficient  machines  especially  adapted  to  a  definite  purpose.  It  is 
difficult  to  say  which  of  these  factors  is  the  more  important.  Cer- 
tain it  is  that  no  machine  can  do  its  best  work  with  unsuitable  raw 
material,  nor  can  a  poor  machine  use  to  advantage  the  best  of 
material.  There  is  ample  reason,  therefore,  for  the  poultryman  to 
study  carefully  how  to  feed  his  birds  to  get  the  best  results,  and 
how  to  breed  stock  that  will  satisfactorily  respond  to  proper  feeding 
by  economically  producing  eggs  or  meat.  Birds  lacking  in  vigor  and 
vitality  are  never  profitable,  and  therefore,  should  be  discarded  by 
the  commercial  poultryman.  Every  effort  should  be  exerted  to 
secure  stock  possessing  great  vigor  of  constitution  and  the  ability 
to  consume,  assimilate  and  convert  a  large  amount  of  food  into  the 
special  product.  Attention  to  this  point  is  as  much  a  characteristic 
of  a  successful  feeder  as  is  a  knowledge  of  feeds  and  the  compound- 
ing of  rations. 

For  some  years  the  columns  of  our  poultry  publications  have 
teemed  with  the  expressions  "balanced  rations,"  "nutritive  ratio," 
"scientific  feeding;"  and  as  a  result  much  confusion  exists  in  the 
minds  of  those  who  have  had  no  opportunity  to  study  the  matter 
carefully.  Some  poultrymen  seem  to  think  that  a  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  feeding  will  enable  one  to  determine  absolutely  the 
amount  and  character  of  the  ration  which  will  exactly  meet  the 
requirements  of  a  flock  of  birds  of  a  given  num.ber  and  weight.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  but  few  scientific  experiments  in  poultry  feeding 
have  been  conducted,  and  our  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  based 
largely  upon  the  work  of  successful  poultry  feeders,  and  upon  cer- 
tain conclusions  drawn  from  experiments  conducted  with  other 
domestic  animals.  Under  existing  conditions,  therefore,  we  must 
content  ourselves  with  a  knowledge  of  the  chemical  composition  of 
various  feeding  stuffs  suitable  for  poultry,  and  so  be  able  to  make 


FEEDING  THE  BUSINESS  HEN.  83 

up  rations  from  the  available  materials  which  will  approximate 
those  used  by  successful  feeders  who  are  operating  under  conditions 
similar  to  our  own.  Such  information  will  not  only  enable  us  to 
use  to  best  advantage  the  feeding  stuffs  produced  locally,  but  it  will 
help  us  to  determine  what  materials  should  be  purchased  to  make 
the  ration  complete.  In  the  limits  of  a  single  chapter  it  is  impossible 
to  discuss  at  any  length  the  principles  of  nutrition  and  feeding.  But 
for  a  better  understanding  of  our  subject  it  is  necessary  that  a  few 
of  the  important  points  be  briefly  stated.      ' 

COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDS.— The  chemist  can  readily  analyze 
our  various  feeding  stuffs  and  accurately  determine  their  chemical 
composition.  He  finds  a  large  number  of  substances,  but  for  con- 
venience these  are  placed  in  five  groups,  viz.,  water,  ash,  protein, 
carbohydrates,  and  ether  extract.  Every  feed  contains  a  certain 
amount  of  necessary  moisture  varying  from  eight  to  90  per  cent  of 
the  total  weight.  It  is  the  most  abundant  constituent  of  the  animal 
body  and  must  be  supplied  abundantly,  but  because  it  can  be  easily 
and  cheaply  furnished  in  other  ways  it  need  not  be  considered  in 
the  feed.  The  roots  of  plants  derive  from  the  soil  certain  mineral 
matter,  which,  though  comparatively  small  in  amount,  is  absolutely 
essential  to  the  ration.  This  ash,  so  called  because  it  is  the  residue 
after  the  complete  burning  of  the  food,  is  largely  used  in  the  skeleton 
of  the  animal,  and  is  present  in  every  portion  of  the  body.  With- 
out a  sufficient  supply  of  this  material  no  animal  can  long  retain 
health.  In  the  protein  group  are  placed  any  ingredients  of  plant 
or  animal  in  which  nitrogen  is  present.  Common  examples  are  white 
of  egg  and  lean  m.eat.  Protein  has  been  aptly  described  as  a  "flesh- 
former,  a  machine  maker,  the  repairer  of  wear  and  tear."  It  is  evi- 
dent from  the  above  that  no  other  group  is  more  important.  The 
carbohydrates  are  almost  exclusively  vegetable  products.  They  con- 
tain sugar,  starch,  gums,  and  other  substances.  Included  is  the 
crude  fibre  or  skeleton  of  plants,  and  the  nitrogen-free  extract.  The 
materials  extracted  from  feeding  stuffs  by  ether,  such  as  fat,  resin 
and  wax  are  placed  in  the  ether  extract  or  fat  group.  The  functions 
of  fat  and  carbohydrates  in  animal  nutrition  are  the  production  of 
muscular  energy  and  heat,  and  the  formation  of  body  fat. 

It  is  evident  that  the  value  of  food  is  determined  by  the  amount 
digested,  not  by  the  amount  eaten.  While  the  scientists  can  tell  us 
the  chemical  composition  of  food  they  cannot,  without  resorting  to 
digestion  experiments,  inform  us  just  how  much  of  the  material 
can  be  actually  used  by  the  animal.  To  conduct  such  experiments 
complicated  apparatus  is  required,  but  briefly  stated  the  food  given 
and  the  wastes  thrown  off  by  the  animal  are  weighed  and  analyzed, 


84  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

the  difference  being  the  amount  digested  or  the  digestible  nutrients. 
Unfortunately  there  have  been  but  few  digestion  experiments  .con- 
ducted with  fowls,  so  for  the  present  we  mT^^^t  depend  upon  the 
results  secured  from  other  domestic  animals.  For  convenience,  the 
table  on  next  page  gives  both  the  chemical  composition  and  the 
percentage  of  digestible  nutrients  of  the  various  feeding  stuffs  used 
in  poultry  feeding. 

When  a  ration  is  compounded  in  such  a  manner  as  to  supply 
the  animal  with  a  sufTicient  amount  of  each  group  of  digestible 
nutrients  it  may  be  called  a  balanced  ration.  The  aim  of  every 
feeder  should  be  to  use  a  ration  that  furnishes  enough  of  each  group 
of  nutrients  fully  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  animal,  but  with- 
out an  excess  vi/hich  might  be  wasted. 

Investigators  have  endeavored  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  diges- 
tible nutrients  and  the  proportion  of  the  different  groups  required 
in  rations  intended  for  specific  purposes,  and  as  a  result  of  this  work 
we  have  a  series  of  feeding  standards  for  most  domestic  animals. 
Though  far  from  being  perfect  as  yet  these  standards  are  extremely 
valuable  as  they  furnish  a  definite  starting  point.  A  ration  com- 
pounded theoretically  by  the  use  of  these  tables  may  not  work  out 
well  in  practice,  but  using  it  as  a  basis  the  feeder  can  make  such 
changes  as  experience  and  observation  warrant  or  economy  dictates. 

The  relative  proportion  of  the  various  nutrients  in  a  ration  is 
termed  the  nutritive  ratio.  This  is  easily  ascertained  by  the  use  of 
the  accompanying  table,  and  is  expressed  by  the  proportion  of 
protein  to  all  tlie  non-nitrogenous  digestible  materials  reckoned  in 
terms  of  carbohydrates.  For  instance,  in  100  pounds  of  wheat  are 
found  the  following  digestible  nutrients :  Protein,  10.2  pounds ; 
carbohydrates,  69.3  pounds ;  ether  extract,  1.7  pounds.  As  each 
pound  of  ether  extract  has  2]/{l  times  the  heating  value  of  the  car- 
bohydrates, the  first  step  in  ascertaining  the  nutritive  ratio  is  to 
multiply  the  amount  of  ether  extract  by  2^4,  snd  thus  reduce  it  to 
its  carbohydrate  equivalent.  This  product  added  to  the  amount  of 
carbohydrates  present  gives  the  carbohydrate  value  of  all  the  diges- 
tible nutrients  in  the  ration  aside  from,  the  protein.  The  sum  thus 
secured  is  divided  by  the  amount  of  protein  present,  and  the  result 
expresses  the  relative  proportion  of  these  two  classes  of  nutrients 
present  in  the  ration,  or  the  nutritive  ratio.  Taking  the  figures 
quoted  aboye  and  following  this  rule  we  get  the  following : 

1.7X  221^  S.§ 

3.8-f  69.3  =73.0 

T^.Qi-lo.s  ^  74 


ANALYSIS  OF  FBBD  STUFFS. 


85 


FEE 

AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  AND  DIGESTIBILITY. 


Compiied  from  various  authorities. 


FEEDING 

MATERIALS. 


GRAINS  AND  SEEDS- 

Corn — 1  'eiit 

"       Flint 

"       Sweet 

Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

Buckwlieat 

Rye 

Kaffir  Coru 

Sunflower  Seed 

Millet  Seed 

Hemp  Seed 

"Wheat  Screeiiiugs 


MEALS,  Etc- 

Cornmeal 

Wheat  1  iran 

Wheat,  Middlings 

Red  Dog  Flour 

Oatmeal 

Brewers'  Grains— Wet. 
Dry. 

IMalt  Sprouts 

I  buckwheat  MiiUllings. 

Linseed  Meal — Old  pr. 

"  "        New  pr. 

Cottonseed  Meal 

Peanut  Meal 

Pea  Meal 

Giuten  Meal 


ROOTS,  Etc- 

(-iarden  Beets 

Sugar  Beets 

Mangolds 

Turnips 

(^arrots 

Pumpkin 

Potatoes 

Cahhages 

LettucB 

Rape 

Apples 

Red  Clover— Fresh.. 
Dry.... 

Alfalfa-Fresh 

Dry 


ANIMAL  FEEDS- 

Milk 

Skini-milk 

Buttermilk 

Dried  Fish 

Dried  Blood 

Beef  Scrap* 


Percentage  Composition. 


^ 


10. G 
n.:j 
S.8 

10.5 
li.O 
10.9 

rj.G 

IJ.C 
9.3 
8.0 

14.0 


ILti 


15. n 

11.9 
12.] 

9.0 

7.9 
75.7 

8.2 
10. U 
13.2 

9.2 
10.1 

8.2 
10.7 
10.5 


8H  .". 
80.5 
90.9 
90.5 
8^•  G 
9(!.9 
7.S.9 
90.5 


84.0 
80.8 
70.8 

]5.;! 

71.8 
8.4 


87.2 
no  (i 

ro.i 

10.8 

8.5 

1.3 


].5 
1.4 
1.9 


1.8 
3.0 
2.4 
2.0 
1.9 
1.5 
2.0 
3.3 


2.9 


1.4 
5.8 
3.3 
3.8 
2.0 
1.0 
3.6 
5.7 
4.8 
5.7 
r..8 
7.2 
4.1) 
2.6 
0.9 


1.0 
0.9 
1.1 
0.8 
1  0 
0.5 
1.0 
1.4 


2.0 
0.4 
2  1 
6.2 
2.7 
7.4 


0.7 
0.7 
0.7 

•^9.2 
4.7 

13.3 


10.3 
10.5 
li.O 
11.9 

n.8 

12.4 
10  0 
10. G 
9.9 
16.3 
11.8 


12.5 


9.2 
15.4 
15.  G 
22  2 
U.l 

5.4 
19.9 
23.2 
28. P 
32.9 
3;!.  2 
42.3 
47.6 
2 )  2 
29!  3 


1.5 
1  ..^ 
1.4 
l.i 
1.1 
1.3 
2.1 
2.4 


2.3 

0.7 
4.4 

12.3 
4.8 

14.3 


3.G 

3.1 

4.0 

48  4 

84.4 


1.7 
2.8 
1.8 
9.5 
2.7 
8.7 
1.7 
1.4 
29.9 
9. J 


4.9     Go. 


I 


70.4 
70.1 

(:i;.8 

71.9 
59.7 
C9.8 
04.. 5 
72 .  ;> 
74.9 
21.4 

,-,7    A 


1.9 
9.0 
4.6 
1.9 
0.9 
3.8 
11.0 
10.7 
4.1 
8.9 
9.5 
5.6 
5.1 
14.4 
3.3 


0.9 
0.9 
0.9 

i  3 

1.7 
0.6 
1  5 


2.6 

1.2 

8.1 

24.8 

7.4 
25.0 


08.7 
53.9 
60.4 
57.4 
67.4 
]2.5 
51.7 
48.5 
41.9 
35.4 
33.4 
23.6 
23.7 
.51.1 
46.5 


8.0 
9.8 
5.5 
6.2 
7.6 
5.2 
17.3 
3.9 


8.4 
16.6 
13.5 
38.1 
12.3 


4.9 
4!o 


5.0 
5.0 
8.1 
2.1 
5.0 
1.8 
2.2 
1.7 
3.0 
21.2 
4.0 


3.0 


3.8 
4.0 
4.0 
5.7 
7.1 
1.6 
5.6 
1.7 
7.1 
7.9 
3.0 

13.1 
8.0 
1.2 

11.8 


0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
0.4 
0.4 
01 
0.4 


0.5 
0.4 
1.1 
3-3 
1.0 


0.3 

1.1 

IT.G 

2.5 


S9 .  ^. 

&:i 

91.2 
89.5 
.'9.0 

87 . 4 
S--1.4 
84.8 
92.5 
86.0 
92.0 
88.4 


85.0 
8;M 
87.9 
91.0 
92.1 
24.3 
91.8 
89.8 
87.3 
90.8 
89.9 
91.8 
89.3 
8).  5 
91.8 


11.5 

13  .■' 
9.1 
o.r. 

11  4 
9.1 
21.1 
15.." 
4.1 
14.0 
19.2 
29  ^ 
84  7 
28.  o 

91 !  6 


12.8 
9.4 
9.9 
F9,2 
91.5 
98  7 


Pekckntage 

Digestible 

N  u  T  K I  E  N  T  s  , 


7.8 
8.0 
8.8 

10.2 
9.2 
8.7 
7.7 
9.9 
7.8 

13.1 
8.9 

10.  li 
9.ri 


6.3 
12.2 
12.8 
17.8 
11.5 

3.9 
15.7 
18.6 
22.0 
29.3 
28  2 
37^2 
42.9 
16.8 
25.8 


1.2 
1.1 
1.1 
1.0 
0.8 
1.(1 
0.9 
1.8 
1.0 
1.5 
0.2 
2.9 
6.8 
3  9 
11.0 


3.6 

2.9 

3.9 

44.1 

.52.3 

43.5 


.   M 

'£  ^ 

oH 

r-ri 

■^  'A 

-^  >t 

,-fq 

'" 

66. 7 

4.3 

66.2 

4.3 

63.7 

7.0 

69.2 

1.7 

47.3 

4.2 

65.6 

1.6 

49.2 

1.8 

67.6 

1.1 

57.1 

2.7 

20.8 

45.0 

3.2 

45.0 

21.0 

51.0 

2.2 

65.3 

3.5 

39.2 

2  7 

53.0 

3.4 

46.5 

4.9 

52.1 

5.9 

9.3 

1.4 

36.3 

5.1 

37.1 

1.7" 

33.4 

5.4 

32.7 

7.0 

40.1 

2.8 

16.0 

12.2 

22.8 

6.9 

48.0 

0.7 

43.3 

11.0 

8.8 

0.1 

10.2 

0.1 

5.4 

0.1 

7.2 

0.2 

7.8 

0.2 

5.8 

0.3 

16.3 

0.1 

8.2 

0.4 

1.6 

0.2 

8.1 

0.2 

14.3 

0.3 

1.4.8 

0.7 

35.8 

1.7 

12.7 

0.5 

39.6 

1.2 

4.9 

3.7 

5.2 

0.3 

4.0 

1.1 

0.0 

10.3 

0  0 

2.5 

15.2 

*  There  is  rv  wide  varinMftn  in  the  eomposition  of  pommereial  heef  scrap.  In  thirty 
samples  of  "nif^at  mea's  and  beer  ser.-ins"  reoontly  analyzed  at  the  New  .Ter.sey  Ag'i- 
ci^'niral  I'-xperlment  Station,  the  pevc^utagQ  p£  protein  var.gfid  from  §7.44  to  fig.nO, 
with  ?i^  (^yerfig^ of  49,38,  '  '■  '      '  '  - •.   -  • 


86  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

Therefore  there  is  one  part  of  protein  to  7.1  parts  of  carbohydrates, 
and  the  nutritive  ratio  of  wheat  is  1  to  7.1.  For  convenience  this  is 
usually  written  1 :7.1. 

The  nutritive  ratio  of  a  mixed  ration  is  found  by  adding  the 
amounts  of  nutrients  of  the  various  classes  in  the  various  feeds  used, 
and  proceeding  as  above.  Rations  having  a  nutritive  ratio  of  1 :5.5 
or  under  are  called  narrow ;  between  this  and  1 :8  are  called  medium, 
and  over  the  latter  are  termed  wide.  Some  years  ago  the  New  York 
Experiment  Station  determined  certain  feeding  standards  for  poul- 
try, indicating  the  average  quantities  of  dry  matter  and  the  various 
digestible  nutrients  required  by  some  classes  of  fowls  under  certain 
conditions.     Portions  of  these  standards  follov/ : 

Rations  for  Chicks. — Digestible  nutrients  per  day  for  each  100 
pounds  live  weight. 

Total 


For  the  first  2  weeks 10.1 

From  2  to  4  weeks  of  age. 
From  4  to  6  weeks  of  age. 
From  6  to  8  weeks  of  age. 
From  8  to  10  weeks  of  age. 
From  10  to  12  weeks  of  age. 

Rations  for  Laying  Hens. — Digestible  nutrients  per  day  for  each 

100  pounds  live  weight. 

Total 


Dry 
latter 
lbs. 

Ash 
lbs. 

Pro- 
tein 
lbs. 

Carbohy- 
drates 
lbs. 

Fat 
lbs. 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio 

10.1 

.5 

2.0 

7.2 

.4 

1:4.1 

9.6 

.7 

2.2 

6.2 

.5 

1:3.4 

8.6 

.6 

2.0 

5.6 

.4 

1:3.3 

7.4 

.5 

1.6 

4.9 

.4 

1:3.7 

6.4 

.5 

1.2 

4.4 

.3 

1:4.3 

5.4 

.4 

1.0 

3.7 

.3 

1 :4.4 

Dry 

Matter 

lbs. 

Ash 
lbs. 

Pro- 
tein 
lbs. 

Carbohy- 
drates 
lbs. 

Fat 
lbs. 

Nutri- 
tive 
ratio. 

3.30 

.20 

.65 

2.25 

.20 

1:4.2 

5.50 

.30 

1.00 

3.75 

.35 

1:4.6 

Hens  of  5  to  8  lbs.  weight. 
Hens  of  3  to  5  lbs.  weight. 

Attention  is  again  drawn  to  the  fact  that  these  standards  are  an 
aid  to  intelligent  feeding,  but  must  not  be  considered  absolute  rules. 
Aside  from  the  chemical  composition  of  the  ration  there  are  many 
factors  to  be  considered,  such  as  the  mechanical  condition  of  the 
various  feeding  stuffs  used,  their  palatability,  comparative  cost,  etc. 

In  discussing  the  essentials  of  the  ideal  poultry  ration,  Doctor 
Brigham  says  that  it  should  contain  the  four  groups  of  supplies 
that  the  birds  naturally  secure  when  at  liberty  on  ample  range,  viz., 
grains,  grubs,  greens,  grits.  When  poultry  keepers  learn  to  include 
all  of  these  in  the  bill  of  fare  of  their  fowls  we  will  have  fewer  com- 
plaints of  unsatisfactory  results.  An  examination  of  the  feeding, 
methods  of  successful  poultrymen  will  demonstrate  that  in  every  case 
representative  feeding  stuffg  from  each  of  the  above  groups  are 
included  in  the  ration, 


FEEDING  THE  BUSINESS  HEN.  87 

In  the  first  group,  the  grains,  are  included  the  various  seeds  and 
grains  and  their  by-products.  Fed  in  various  ways,  whole,  cracked 
and  ground,  they  form  the  major  portion  of  the  feed  required  by  all 
classes  of  poultry.  The  grains  most  commonly  used  by  poultrymen 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  are  corn,  wheat,  barley  and 
oats.  Buckwheat,  Kaffir  corn  and  sunflower  seeds,  usually  in  com- 
paratively small  quantities,  are  frequently  added  for  variety.  Corn 
is  the  cheapest  of  the  grains  and  as  a  result  it  is  frequently  fed  too 
freely.  Carefully  used  it  is  an  economical  feed.  Wheat  is  commonly 
considered  the  best  grain  for  poultry,  and  it  may  be  fed  liberally 
when  the  price  warrants.  Shrunken  and  broken  wheat  are  as  valu- 
able as  plump  wheat  for  poultry  feeding,  but  so-called  wheat  screen- 
ings which  consist  largely  of  weed  seeds,  light  oats  and  other  wastes, 
are  not  desirable.  Barley  is  an  excellent  feed  and  makes  a  fair  sub- 
stitute for  wheat.  Oats  are  especially  valuable,  and  in  some  form 
should  appear  in  the  rations  of  both  growing  and  laying  stock.  Some 
object  to  the  use  of  oats  on  account  of  the  hulls,  but  experienced 
poultrymen  feed  them  liberally  with  excellent  results.  Buckwheat 
is  useful  as  a  feed  for  layers,  and  can  be  used  to  special  advantage 
at  the  time  the  pullets  are  being  matured.  Sunflower  seeds  contain  a 
very  high  percentage  of  crude  fiber,  but  may  be  fed  sparingly  at  all 
times,  and  more  liberally  during  the  molting  season. 

Of  the  innumerable  by-products  the  best  are  wheat  bran,  wheat 
middlings,  linseed  meal  and  gluten  meal.  Pea  meal  and  peanut  meal 
are  worthy  of  careful  trial,  though  both  are  hard  to  secure  in  some 
localities  and  the  cost  is  frequently  prohibitive.  Green  food  is  very 
important,  not  because  of  its  nutritive  value  alone,  which  is  com- 
paratively slight,  but  on  account  of  its  tonic  influence  on  the  diges- 
tive system.  A  regular  and  liberal  supply  of  succulent  feed  seems 
to  be  an  essential  part  of  the  ration  for  all  ages. 

During  the  growing  season  the  green  food  may  be  easily  sup- 
plied by  allowing  the  birds  access  to  growing  grass  or  young  grain. 
If  this  is  not  convenient,  rape,  Swiss  chard  or  other  similar  crops 
may  be  grown.  The  various  roots  and  vegetables  may  be  used  dur- 
ing the  Winter  season,  but  everything  considered,  mangolds  are 
probably  the  most  satisfactory.  Of  late  many  poultrymen  have 
adopted  the  use  of  sprouted  oats,  and  the  results  seem  to  be  excel- 
lent. Oats  are  spread  on  trays  to  the  depth  of  one  to  two  inches  and 
kept  damp  and  warm,  -  The  result  is  a  very  rapid  growth  of  tender, 
succulent  sprouts.  When  the  latter  reach  the  height  of  four  to  six 
inches  the  matted  mass  is  fed  to  the  birds,  a  block  6x10  inches  in 
size  daily  being  sufficient  for  100  hens.  It  is  advisable  to  use  new, 
heavy  oats  for  this  purpose,  as  they  germinate  better  than  old  grain. 


88  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

For  feeding  young  chicks  wheat  may  be  sprouted  in  the  same  manner 
and  the  danger  from  oat  hulls  is  thus  eliminated.  Dry  lawn  clip- 
pings, clover  and  Alfalfa  hay  are  excellent  Winter  feeds.  They 
may  be  used  dry,  or  if  preferred,  soaked  or  steamed.  When  on 
range  poultry  pick  up  much  animal  food  in  the  form  of  insects  of 
various  kinds,  but  under  ordinary  conditions  the  amount  is  too  small 
to  give  the  best  results.  The  deficiency  may  be  met  by  supplying 
animal  food  of  some  other  kind.  Such  foods  are  highly  nitrogenous 
and  are  an  essential  part  of  the  ration.  It  has  been  clearly  demon- 
strated that  protein  from  animal  sources  is  much  more  valuable  in 
poultry  feeding  than  that  of  vegetable  origin.  In  fact  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  latter  can  successfully  be  substituted  for  the  former. 

The  animal  foods  most  in  use  are  beef  scrap,  meat  meal,  milk 
in  various  forms  and  desiccated  and  fresh  fish.  Both  beef  scrap 
and  animal  meal  vary  widely  in  composition,  and  for  protection  the 
poultryman  should  use  brands  sold  under  a  guaranteed  analysis. 
Milk  in  any  form  may  be  fed  freely,  either  separately  or  mixed 
with  the  mash.  It  seems  to  have  a  practical  feeding  value  much 
greater  than  indicated  by  its  chemical  analysis.  The  same  is  true 
of  fish,  though  many  hesitate  to  use  fish  because  it  has  been  charged 
with  giving  an  undesirable  flavor  to  the  eggs.  Fresh  fish  should  be 
boiled  before  feeding,  and  in  no  case  should  any  be  used  that  is 
not  absolutely  sweet. 

Under  the  head  of  grits  may  be  grouped  the  gravel  and  other 
substances  used  by  the  birds  as  grinding  materials ;  the  oyster  shells 
commonly  used  to  supply  carbonate  of  lime  for  the  ^gg  shells  and 
the  bone,  which  helps  build  the  skeleton.  This  group,  especially 
the  bone,  is  frequently  overlooked.  As  has  been  previously  stated, 
the  ash  constituents  of  the  food  are  very  important,  and  since  the 
bulk  of  the  feeding  stuffs  have  a  low  ash  content,  green  bone, 
cracked  bone  or  bone  meal  should  be  used  to  add  the  necessary 
phosphate  of  lime,  especially  in  the  ration  for  growing  stock.  It  is 
a  good  practice  to  keep  grit,  shell,  bone  and  charcoal  in  hoppers 
where  the  birds  can  have  access  to  them  at  all  times.  Fowls  should 
also  be  given  a  limited  amount  of  salt,  from  one-quarter  to  one-half 
pound  being  added  to  each  100  pounds  of  mash. 

When  planning  a  system  of  poultry  feeding  consideration  must 
be  given  to  two  important  points :  First,  the  cost  of  the  ration,  and 
second,  the  amount  of  labor  involved  in  feeding  it.  At  this  point 
the  individual  poultryman  must  decide  for  himself  and  adopt  the 
ration  and  feeding  system  that  best  meets  his  needs  under  the  pecu- 
liar conditions  surrounding  his  plant.  It  is  conceivable  that  a  ration 
might  be  adopted  which  would  give  an  unusually  heavy  egg  produc- 


FEEDING  THE  BUSINESS  HEN.  89 

tion  but  costing  so  much  that  the  resulting  profit  would  be  small. 
On  the  other  hand  a  complicated  system  of  feeding  might  require 
so  much  labor  that  comparatively  few  birds  could  be  cared  for  by 
one  man.  Under  these  conditions  the  profit  per  hen  might  be  large, 
but  the  aggregate  income  altogether  too  small.  As  a  commercial 
proposition  the  net  profit  per  bird  is  not  as  important  as  the  net  profit 
per  man. 

Occasionally  a  poultryman  will  feed  whole  grain  exclusively,  but 
the  general  rule  is  to  supply  a  portion  of  the  grain  food  in  the  form 
of  mash,  a  mixture  of  various  ground  grains  and  by-products.  This 
is  fed  either  wet  or  dry.  A  great  difference  of  opinion  exists  among 
poutrymen  as  to  the  relative  merits  of  these  two  methods,  but  it  is 
generally  held  that  wet  mash,  properly  fed,  will  produce  a  better 
egg  yield,  while  dry  mash  feeding  is  easier  and  safer.  The  latter 
system  is  in  more  general  use  on  commercial  poultry  farms  at  pres- 
ent. The  beginner  will  appreciate  the  fact  that  definite  directions  as 
to  the  amount  to  feed  a  given  lot  of  birds  can  be  stated  when  dry 
mash  feeding  is  followed. 

The  Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  method  of  feeding 
laying  hens  has  received  great  publicity  and  been  v/idely  adopted.  At 
this  Station  the  stock  consists  of  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  housed  in 
curtain-front  buildings.     The  feeding  is  as  follows  : — 

Dry  mash  is  kept  in  open  hoppers  before  the  birds  at  all  times. 
Also  grit,  oyster  shell,  cracked  bone  and  charcoal.  Green  food, 
either  mangolds  or  sprouted  oats,  is  supplied,  and  five  pounds  of 
cut  clover  hay  is  fed  dry  daily  to  each  100  birds.  Early  in  the 
morning  for  each  100  hens,  four  quarts  of  whole  corn  is  scattered 
in  the  litter,  and  at  10  o'clock  they  are  fed  two  quarts  of  oats  and 
two  quarts  of  wheat. 

The  dry  mash  was  formerly  made  up  as  follows:  200  pounds 
wheat  bran,  100  pounds  cornmeal,  100  pounds  wheat  middlings,  100 
pounds  gluten  or  brewers'  grain,  100  pounds  linseed  meal,  100  pounds 
beef  scrap. 

Thousands  of  poultrymen  used  this  formula,  many  with  satis- 
factory results,  while  others  found  it  too  concentrated  and  made 
changes  as  dictated  by  their  judgment.  The  Station  has  recently 
made  some  changes  in  the  mixture.  Pullets  are  brought  into  the 
laying  house  in  September,  and  during  that  month  the  mash  is 
made  up  of:  300  pounds  bran,  100  pounds  cornmeal,  100  pounds 
middlings,  100  pounds  beef  scrap.  For  October  the  mash  contains: 
200  pounds  bran,  100  pounds  cornmeal,  100  pounds  middlings,  100 
pounds  gluten  meal,  100  pounds  beef  scrap.  For  November  50 
pounds  of  linseed  meal  is  added  to  the  above.     For  December  the 


90  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

October  mixture  is  used  again.  Thereafter  this  amount  of  linseed 
is  added  on  alternate  months. 

The  Station  claims  for  this  revised  system  of  feeding  that  it 
maintains  the  vitality  of  the  stock  and  induces  an  even  egg  produc- 
tion during  the  Winter  months. 

On  a  New  England  farm,  where  1,000  Buff  Plymouth  Rocks  are 
kept,  a  system  has  been  evolved  that  has  given  good  satisfaction 
and  enabled  the  owner  to  show  a  handsome  profit  annually.  The 
stock  is  kept  under  the  double  yard  system,  having  access  to  grow- 
ing green  food  at  all  times.  Dry  mash,  beef  scraps,  grit,  shell  and 
charcoal  are  constantly  kept  in  hoppers  before  the  birds.  At  3  P.  M. 
daily  10  quarts  of  grain  are  fed  to  each  100  birds.  This  mixture 
consists  of  equal  parts  by  weight  of  corn,  wheat  and  oats.  Twice 
weekly  the  birds  are  fed  boiled  vegetables  in  troughs,  all  they  will 
eat  in  a  half  hour. 

The  basis  of  the  mash  is  the  above  grain  mixture  ground.  To 
each  100  pounds  of  this  mixture  is  added  live  pounds  linseed  meal, 
10  pounds  blood  meal  and  20  pounds  Alfalfa  meal. 

On  another  successful  egg  farm  using  Rhode  Island  Reds,  dry 
mash,  shell,  grit  and  bone  are  constantly  supplied  in  hoppers,  and 
green  food  is  furnished  in  liberal  amounts.  To  each  100  hens  three 
quarts  of  a  grain  mixture  is  fed  in  the  morning  and  three  quarts 
of  coarse  cracked  corn  at  night.  The  grain  mixture  is  made  up 
of  seven-  parts,  by  measure,  of  wheat,  seven  parts  of  oats,  four  parts 
of  fine  cracked  corn. 

The  mash  mixture  contains  200  pounds  bran,  100  pounds  mid- 
dlings, 100  pounds  gluten,  100  pounds  ground  oats,  100  pounds  meat 
meal.  A  good  mash  mixture  that  has  given  satisfactory  results  for 
years  consists  of  200  pounds  bran,  200  pounds  cornmeal,  200  pounds 
ground  oats,  100  pounds  middlings.  Beef  scrap  may  be  added  to 
this,  or  fed  separately  in  hoppers. 

Any  of  the  above  mixtures  would  make  a  good  wet  mash.  In 
feeding  wet  mash  great  care  should  be  exercised  to  make  the  mix- 
ture the  proper  consistency,  moist  and  crumbly,  but  never  sloppy. 

For  best  results,  wet  mash  should  be  fed  just  before  the  birds 
go  to  roost.  The  whole  grain  may  be  fed  in  the  morning — or 
thrown  into  the  litter  after  the  birds  have  gone  to  roost;  a  green 
food  given  at  noon  and  at  night  all  the  mash  they  will  clean  up 
quickly.  This  system  of  feeding  keeps  the  birds  active  all  day  and 
sends  them  to  roost  with  full  crops. 

A  study  of  the  above  rations  serves  to  emphasize  the  fact  that 
there  is  no  one  best  ration  for  laying  hens.  Within  reasonable 
limits  the  exact  proportions  of  the  different  foods   does  not  seem 


FEEDING  THE  BUSINESS  HEN.  dl 

to  make  a  great  difference,  but  in  every  case  we  find  included  in 
satisfactory  rations  the  four  groups  of  feed  stuffs  already  discussed — • 
grains,  grubs,  greens,  grits. 

There  is  no  gain  from  supplying  a  mere  maintenance  ration. 
Profit  can  be  secured  only  from  that  part  of  the  ration  which  the 
fowl  can  assimilate  in  addition  to  her  own  bodily  needs.  Rapid 
growth  and  heavy  G.gg  production  can  be  secured  only  by  heavy 
feeding.  The  fattening  of  market  poultry  should  be  given  more 
attention.  A  large  proportion  of  our  market  stock  is  sold  in  poor 
condition,  to  the  detriment  of  producer  and  consumer  alike.  A 
comparatively  short  period  of  confinement  in  a  comfortable  pen  with 
liberal  feeding  of  corn  in  some  form,  and  beef  scraps,  will  greatly 
improve  the  condition  of  fov/ls  and  chickens  intended  for  market. 
Of  course  the  best  way  to  finish  market  stock  is  crate  fattening. 
The  birds  are  placed  in  small  compartments  in  crates,  kept  quiet 
and  comfortable,  and  for  about  three  weeks  are  fed  twice  daily, 
either  in  troughs  or  by  the  use  of  the  cramming  machine. 

At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  the  following  ration  proved 
an  economical  producer  of  yellow  flesh :  five  pounds  cornmeal,  four 
pounds  middlings,  one  pound  oat  meal,  one  pound  animal  meal.  A 
professional  fattener  in  New  York  uses  equal  parts  by  weight  of 
cornmeal,  ground  oats  and  ground  barley.  For  best  results  these 
materials  must  be  ground  exceedingly  fine.  Milk,  either  sour  or 
buttermilk,  is  used  to  reduce  the  mixture  to  a  creamy  consistency. 
In  the  absence  of  milk,  water  may  be  used,  in  v/hich  case  a  small 
amount  of  animal  meal  should  be  added  to  increase  the  amount  of 
protein. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
BREEDING  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

WHAT  BREEDING  CAN  AND  CANNOT  DO.— All  improve- 
ment of  the  domestic  fowl  is  the  result  of  careful  selection  and  mat- 
ing, combined  with  improved  methods  of  feeding  and  care.  When 
once  secured  superior  quality  of  egg  production,  growth  of  flesh  or 
high  exhibition  points  are  difficult  to  maintain.  The  natural  ten- 
dency is  downward  rather  than  upward.  High  standards  of  excel- 
lence are  sustained  and  improved  only  by  the  guiding  hand  of  man. 
Left  to  shift  by  themselves  it  is  safe  to  predict  that  most  of  our  so- 
called  breeds  or  varieties  of  poultry  would  gradually  revert  back  to 
a  few  primitive  races.  Careful  breeding  alone,  important  though  it 
is,  will  not  insure  permanent  improvement.  No  amount  of  good 
breeding  for  size  or  prolificacy  will  take  the  place  of  good  feeding 
and  care,  or  can  ever  overcome  the  evil  influences  of  improper 
methods  of  rearing.  Good  feeding  and  good  breeding  are  twin  sis- 
ters in  the  improvement  of  the  domestic  fowl.  One  is  as  important 
as  the  other,  and  one  is  indispensable  to  the  other.  Many  flocks  of 
good  purebred  poultry  have  been  blamed  for  poor  egg  yield  which 
was  due  to  improper  methods  of  feeding,  housing  and  care,  and  the 
breeder  paid  the  penalty.  If  we  would  produce  good  layers  of  large 
high-quality  eggs,  we  must  rear  large  healthy  stock.  Our  business 
hen  machine  must  be  well  built.  She  must  be  grown  under  fresh 
air,  free  range  conditions  and  judicious  liberal  feeding.  The  busi- 
ness hen  must  be  bred  for  business.  She  must  fulfill  the  following 
qualifications :  She  must  be  of  good  size,  hardy,  attractive,  an 
economical  producer  of  eggs  and  flesh,  and  must  be  especially 
adapted  to  the  specific  purpose  for  which  she  is  kept. 

CONSTITUTIONAL  VIGOR.— Whatever  may  be  the  object 
in  breeding,  whether  for  exhibition,  for  egg  production  or  flesh,  the 
first  consideration  is  strong  vigorous  stock.  This  is  especially  true 
in  breeding  for  egg  production.  In  view  of  the  great  importance  of 
breeding  poultry  for  increased  egg  production,  and  the  consequent 
demands  upon  the  fowl  for  greater  physical  strength  to  withstand 
the  heavy  strain  upon  the  system,  it  is  of  prime  importance  to  know 
to  what  extent  constitutional  vigor  influences  the  egg-laying  quali- 
ties of  fowls,  the  fertility  and  hatching  power  of  their  eggs  and  the 


BREEDING  THE  BUSINESS  HEN.  93 

development  of  their  offspring.  The  modern  heavy-laying  fowl 
probably  performs  the  greatest  feat  of  digestion,  assimilation  and 
reproduction  of  any  of  our  domesticated  animals.  She  is  our  great- 
est transformer  of  food  into  a  finished  product.  She  is  our  best 
condenser  of  raw  materials.  This  point  is  clearly  emphasized  by 
Dr.  W.  H.  Jordan,  of  the  New  York  State  Experiment  Station  at 
Geneva,  who  compared  a  Leghorn  fowl,  weighing  3J/^  pounds  and 
laying  200  eggs  per  year,  weighing  25  pounds,  with  a  Jersey  cow, 
weighing  one  thousand  pounds  and  giving  in  a  year  7,000  pounds 
of  milk  containing  14  per  cent  solids.  He  stated  that  "If  you  take 
the  dry  matter  of  the  hen  and  compare  it  with  the  dry  matter  in 
the  eggs  she  lays  in  a  year,  there  will  be  5^  times  as  much  dry 
matter  in  the  eggs  as  in  her  whole  body.  The  weight  of  the  dry 
matter  in  the  cow's  body  to  the  weight  of  the  dry  matter  in  the 
milk  will  be  as  one  to  two  and  nine-tenths.  In  other  words,  based 
upon  dry  matter,  the  hen  does  twice  as  well  as  the  cow.  I  suspect 
the  hen  is  the  most  efficient  transformer  of  raw  material  into  the 
finished  product  that  there  is  on  the  farm.  Her  physiological  activity 
is  something  remarkable.  So  in  that  particular  the  hen  stands  in  a 
class  by  herself." 

A  good  fowl  is  expected  to  average  135  to  150  eggs  per  year. 
Three  of  the  Cornell  Poultry  Department  flocks  this  year  averaged 
152,  156  and  175  eggs  per  hen  respectively,  an  average  of  161  eggs 
per  hen.  Several  hens  have  laid  more  than  200  eggs  each,  and  one 
laid  240  eggs.  These  hens  averaged  BJ/^  pounds  each  in  weight, 
and  laid  five  times  their  weight  in  eggs.  This  is,  in  fact,  quite  sim- 
ilar, though  not  entirely  comparable,  to  the  giving  birth  of  an  off- 
spring every  other  day  during  the  year.  To  do  this  requires  not  only 
an  inherited  tendency  to  large  production,  but  also  an  inherited 
constitutional  vigor  to  withstand  the  great  physical  strain.  Repro- 
duction, presumably,  is  the  most  exhausting  physical  function.  In 
view  of  the  enormous  work  of  digestion,  growth  and  production 
which  a  hen  is  expected  to  perform  during  her  short  life  of  two  or 
three  years,  it  must  be  apparent  that  the  most  important  factor  in 
breeding  poultry  is  not  the  breed  or  variety,  or  the  high  scoring 
quahties  of  the  individual  as  an  exhibition  fowl,  or  the  number  of 
eggs  its  ancestors  have  laid  that  determines  its  value,  important 
though  they  are,  but  rather  the  good  health,  natural  stamina  and 
the  constitutional  vigor  of  the  fowls  to  be  mated,  and  their  ability 
to  eat,  digest  and  assimilate  large  quantities  of  food. 

'  CONSTITUTION  AND  VITALITY.— A  factor  quite  as 
important  as  determining  whether  or  not  constitutional  vigor  influ- 
ences the   function  of  reproduction,  is  to  learn   whether  there   are 


04  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

physical  differences  which  distinguish  the  constitutionally  strong 
from  the  constitutionally  weak  fowls,  and  if  so,  whether  they  can  be 
easily  distinguished  by  physical  characteristics  which  can  be  used  as  a 
basis  on  which  to  select  strong  fowls  for  breeding  purposes.  In 
order  to  determine  whether  or  not  physical  strength  or  weakness 
influences  production,  fertility  and  hatching  power  of  eggs,  and 
growth  of  chickens,  and  if  so,  whether  there  are  physical  characteris- 
tics by  which  these  weaknesses  may  be  recognized  in  the  selection  of 
breeders,  a  large  number  of  experiments  have  been  conducted  by 
the  Poultry  Department  of  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agricul- 
ture at  Cornell  University,  the  results  of  which  show  that  there  are 
great  differences  in  the  number  of  eggs  laid,  their  fertility  and  hatch- 
ing power,  and  the  vigor  of  chickens  from  fowls  that  have  strong 
constitutions  as  compared  with  those  of  low  vitality.  These  differ- 
ences amounted  to  a  dozen  and  more  eggs  a  year  per  hen  in  favor  of 
the  hens  of  strong  constitution.  Seven-months-old  pullets  from 
hens  of  high  vitality  weighed  from  one-half  to  one  pound  more  than 
pullets  of  the  same  age  and  variety  and  method  of  hatching  and 
rearing  that  were  hatched  from  eggs  laid  by  stock  of  low  vitality. 
The  method  by  which  the  flocks  were  selected  was  based  on  the 
theory  that  strong  fowls  differ  from  weak  fowls  in  type,  action  and 
various  other  physical  characters.  Among  the  points  to  be  observed 
in  selecting  fowls  with  reference  to  their  constitutional  vigor  are 
the  following :  A  fowl's  actions  are  a  splendid  indication  of  its 
health.  This  is  especially  true  as  regards  the  appetite.  Fowls  that 
are  strong,  vigorous  and  active  usually  are  good  feeders.  Generally 
among  fowls  of  the  same  variety  the  heaviest  eaters  are  the  heaviest 
layers.  Fowls  that  are  in  the  best  physical  condition  generally  are 
off  the  perches  first  in  the  morning  and  go  to  roost  last  at  night. 
Hens  of  low  vitality  are  much  upon  the  roosts  during  the  day  and 
are  inclined  to  stand  around  listlessly.  Crowing  is  an  excellent 
character  to  indicate  vigor  and  vitality,  and  should  always  be  used 
in  selecting  males  for  breeding  purposes.  It  indicates  physical 
strength  and  masculinity.  Gallantry  on  the  part  of  the  male  in 
calling  the  hens  to  eat  choice  morsels  of  food  is  also  a  character  of 
considerable  importance.  Courage  as  contrasted  with  fear  is  also 
a  good  indication  of  constitutionaJ  vigor.  Fear  and  physical  weak- 
ness usually  go  together. 

Type  is  next  in  importance  to  the  action  of  the  fowl  as  an  indi- 
cation of  constitutional  vigor.  The  body  of  the  vigorous  fowl  is 
broad,  deep  and  blocky,  as  contrasted  with  the  long,  thin,  slender 
type.  The  difference  is  primarily  in  the  length  of  the  joints  and 
the  size  of  the  bone  and  muscles.     There  is  a  correlation  between 


BREEDING  THE  BUSINESS  HEN.  95 

the  parts  of  a  fowl,  so  that  these  are  associated  together  as  indica- 
dons  of  high  or  low  vitality.  For  example,  a  fowl  of  pronounced 
low  vitality  is  likely  to  have  a  long,  flat,  narrow  head,  long,  thin, 
flat  beak,  long,  thin  neck,  long,  slender  body,  long,  thin  thighs  and 
shanks,  and  long  toes.  Pale,  thin,  cold  shanks  are  an  almost  infalli- 
ble indication  of  lack  of  vitality.  The  fowl  of  pronounced  strong 
vitality  is  more  likely  to  have  a  short,  thick,  curved  beak,  round  full 
head,  large  comb,  short,  stocky  neck,  short,  thick,  deep  body,  short, 
heavy  thighs  and  shanks.  The  eye  is  a  mirror  of  the  health,  reflect- 
ing vitality  and  life.  It  should  be  round  and  full.  Sunken  eyes  and 
drooping  eyelids  indicate  low  vitality.  The  plumage  of  the  fowl 
also  indicates  its  vitality.  In  fowls  of  low  vitality  the  plumage  is 
likely  to  be  ruffled,  dry,  lusterless  and  broken  and  not  fully  developed. 
Chickens  of  low  vitality  are  slow  to  feather.  The  way  a  fowl  carries 
the  tail  and  wings  is  a  good  indication  of  its  vigor.  Sick  fowls 
nearly  always  carry  the  tail  drooping.  This  is  particularly  true  in 
the  case  of  young  chickens.  The  luster  of  the  plumage  is  dependent 
to  a  large  extent  upon  proper  nourishment  and  the  oiling  of  the 
plumage  from  the  oil  glands,  which,  in  the  fowl  of  lov/  vitality,  do 
not  contain  sufficient  oil  for  the  purpose.  The  breast  and  keel  of 
the  fowl  of  strong  vitality  are  usually  full  and  meaty  and  the  fluff 
plump  and  full.  This  is  one  of  the  first  places  to  examine  in  select- 
ing fowls  for  low  vitality.  Depth  and  width  of  the  body  indicate 
a  large  capacity  to  digest  and  assimilate  food.  Both  characters  are 
applicable  in  selecting  fowls  of  any  age.  Selection  for  breeding 
purposes  should  be  continuous :  from  the  ^^g,  the  chick  and  chicken, 
the  cockerel  and  pullet,  and  mature  stock.  We  should  eliminate 
weakness  wherever  we  see  it. 

BREEDING  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION.— The  business  hen 
must  be  bred  to  lay  more  eggs  of  better  quality  and  to  lay  them  at 
the  time  when  they  will  bring  the  highest  price  at  the  lowest  pos- 
sible cost  for  food  and  care.  Improvement  must,  therefore,  be 
made  in  quantity,  quality  and  cost.  Trap  nests  supply  the  only  cer- 
tain vv^ay  of  breeding  from  the  highest  producers.  Trap  nests,  how- 
ever, are  not  to  be  recommended  except  for  persons  who  can  give 
special  attention  to  the  breeding  of  pedigree  stock.  It  costs  in  the 
neighborhood  of  50  cents  per  year  per  hen  for  labor  in  trap-nesting 
and  keeping  the  records.  There  are  a  few  things  the  poultryman  or 
farmer  can  do  v/ithout  trap-nesting  that  will  be  likely  to  enable  him 
to  improve  the  egg  producing  qualities  of  his  flock. 

(1)  Pick  out  the  pullets  of  the  same  age  that  lay  first.  Chick- 
ens, like  all  animal  kind,  show  early  in  life  the  characteristics  that 
dominate  later.     A  careful  study  of  the  individual  records  of  hens 


96  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

indicates  that  the  earhest  producing  pullets  are  likely  to  be  the  most 
proHfic. 

(2)  Breed  from  the  hens  that  lay  best  in  the  Fall  and  early 
Winter.  It  has  been  found  that  only  the  best  layers  are  likely  to 
lay  in  the  Fall  and  early  Winter  when  conditions  are  most  favorable 
for  egg  production.  This  season,  then,  is  the  time  of  the  year  in 
which  to  select  and  mark  the  fowls  for  breeding.  The  most  unfavor- 
able season  to  make  the  selection  is  in  the  Spring,  when  both  the 
high  and  low-producing  fowls  are  laying,  and  when  it  is  difficult  to 
distinguish  one  from  the  other.  By  selecting  for  breeding  the  fowls 
that  lay  in  the  Fall  and  Winter,  we  not  only  are  more  likely  to  get 
the  highest  producers,  but  also  those  that  have  a  tendency  to  lay  the 
largest  proportion  of  their  eggs  when  they  are  the  highest  in  price. 

(3)  Breed  only  from  hens  of  good  size.  A  small  hen  cannot 
lay  as  many  large  eggs  as  a  large  hen  can  without  undue  physical 
exertion.  The  size  of  the  hen  must  be  kept  in  proportion  to  the 
size  and  number  of  eggs  she  lays.  We  cannot  afford  to  overload 
our  hens  any  more  than  we  should  overload  an  engine.  This  does 
not  imply  that  the  largest  hens  are  necessarily  the  most  prolific,  but 
it  is  intended  to  emphasize  the  necessity  of  having  large,  vigorous 
stock,  capable  of  digesting  and  assimilating  a  large  amount  of  food 
in  order  to  produce  a  large  number  of  large-sized  eggs. 

(4)  Breed  from  the  hens  that  moult  late  in  'the  Fall  and  also 
show  evidence  of  physical  strength.  Late  moulting,  when  coupled 
with  constitutional  vigor,  indicates  that  the  fowl  had  continued  to 
lay  late  into  the  Fall  of  the  year.  Experiments  at  Cornell  have 
shown  that  the  highest  producers  are  likely  to  moult  late.  The  fact 
that  fowls  are  in  good  health  and  moult  late  is  not  only  a  good  indi- 
cation of  high  production,  but  indicates  that  the  fowl  is  not  likely  to 
lay  many,  if  any,  eggs  during  the  remainder  of  the  Winter  and, 
therefore,  is  likely  to  be  in  the  best  possible  physical  condition  to  lay 
large  perfect  hatchable  eggs  during  the  hatching  season. 

(5)  Select  egg-type  fowls  for  breeding.  While  it  is  a  disputed 
point  as  to  whether  or  not  there  is  such  a  type,  poultrymen  who  are 
close  observers  are  pretty  well  agreed  on  the  type  of  certain  indi- 
viduals which  they  have  come  to  recognize  as  their  best  producers. 
These  characters  may  not  be  precisely  the  same  with  all  varieties. 
Each  breeder  must  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  his  variety. 
There  are  many  methods,  more  or  less  reliable,  for  telling  a  hen 
that  is  laying  from  a  hen  that  is  not  laying  at  a  given  time.  How- 
ever, in  these  days  when  complete  and  careful  records  are  being 
kept  for  the  year,  the  so-called  systems  are  of  limited  value  in  deter- 
mining the   largest  producers.     The  shape  of  the  hen's  body,   size 


BREEDING  THE  BUSINESS  HEN.  97 

and  color  of  her  comb  change  from  time  to  time  during  the  year, 
which  interferes  with  any  method  of  selecting  fowls  of  the  "egg 
type."  The  egg  type  is  not  yet  scientifically  proven,  even  though 
good  ponltrymen  learn  to  select  with  considerable  accuracy  the  indi- 
viduals that  are  most  likely  to  give  the  best  results.  The  differences 
in  productive  capacity  undoubtedly  accompany  and  are  the  result 
of  a  difference  in  body  type.  Good  type,  however,  does  not  mean 
body  tj-pe  alone.  High  productive  power  apparently  is  dependent  not 
only  upon  the  inheritance  of  the  function  of  egg  production,  but  also 
of  the  body  best  suited  to  large  production,  and  also  upon  a  highly- 
developed  nervous  organization  and  strong  powers  of  digestion,  any 
one  of  which,  or  all  four  of  which  factors  presumably  may  be 
inherited  by  the  individual.  The  body  type  can  in  a  measure  be 
determined  by  physical  examination.  The  nervous  force  is  indicated 
by  the  action,  intelligence  and  bright  eye.  Strong  digestion  and 
assimilation  are  shown  in  the  appetite  and  ability  to  handle  food. 
Constitutional  vigor  by  type,  action,  color  and  size  of  comb,  shanks, 
etc.  When  all  these  qualities  are  combined  in  an  individual  we  get 
the  highest  producing  fowl. 

(6)  Constitution  vigor.  Only  individuals  showing  characters 
of  strong  constitutional  vigor  should  be  retained  for  breeders. 

(7)  Use  hens  instead  of  pullets  for  breeding,  thus  increasing 
the  size  of  the  chick  and  improving  its  vigor,  and  at  the  sam.e  time 
developing  the  tendency  to  breed  for  longevity  of  the  race. 

BREEDING  FOR  LONGEVITY.— We  must  breed  a  long-lived 
hen,  a  long  distance  hen,  one  that  can  keep  up  the  process  of  good 
tgg  production  for  a  period  of  two  or  three  years  and  remain  strong 
and  hardy.  There  are  long-lived  families  of  hens  just  as  there  are 
long-lived  families  of  humans.  The  tendency  of  long  life  appears 
to  be  a  hereditary  character.  The  tendency  of  modern  poultry  breed- 
ing on  many  of  the  large  poultry  farms  has  been  to  shorten  the 
normal  life  of  the  race  of  the  domestic  fowl.  This  has  been  brought 
about  in  a  variety  of  ways,  chief  of  v/hich  is  the  breeding  from 
cockerels  and  pullets  instead  of  cocks  and  hens.  This  is  because 
pullets  lay  the  largest  number  of  eggs  during  the  first  six  months  of 
their  laying  year,  which  is  the  last  six  months  of  their  first  year 
from  the  shell.  While  they  are  doing  this  they  are  also  expected  to 
increase  in  size.  They  are  then  not  in  a  proper  physical  condition  to 
produce  eggs  for  breeding  as  compared  with  hens  that  are  kept  under 
similar  environmental  conditions.  Close  confinement,  forced  feed- 
ing and  early  maturity  have  also  contributed  to  shorten  the  normal 
life  and  lower  the  vitality  of  the  fowl. 

AGE  AS  A  FACTOR  IN  BREEDING.— A  good  male  should 
be  used  until  a  stronger  and  superior  individual  can  be  found.    The 


98  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

age  of  usefulness  of  a  male  will  depend  more  upon  his  inherited 
vitality  and  physical  characters  than  on  any  particular  breed  or  stated 
age.  Males  of  the  large  breeds  frequently  become  heavy  and  clumsy. 
A  White  Leghorn  male,  now  nine  years  old,  is  known  to  be  a 
valuable  breeder  still.  Two  or  three  years,  however,  usually  is  the 
limit  of  profitable  usefulness.  Under-sized  cockerels  should  never 
be  used.  Maturity  and  full  development  are  essential.  Strong, 
large,  early-hatched  cockerels  are  as  a  rule  as  desirable  as  old  males, 
except  that  they  have  not  been  tried  and  their  power  of  reproducing 
desirable  characters  has  not  been  proven.  A  male's  value  is  two- 
fold: his  ability  to  produce  fertility  and  his  power  to  reproduce  his 
own  desirable  qualities.  Males  that  excel  in  one  quality  do  not 
always  in  both.  It  is  generally  a  good  practice  to  keep  a  male  if  he 
remains  active  until  you  can  get  a  better  one.  Breed  from  mature 
stock.  Fowls  two  or  three  years  old  which  have  robust  constitu- 
tions are  more  desirable  for  breeders  than  younger  stock,  either 
male  or  female.  Professor  Atwood,  of  the  West  Virginia  Experi- 
ment Station,  proved  in  six  experiments  where  he  compared  eggs 
for  hatching  from  hens  and  pullets,  that  the  former  not  only  laid 
larger  eggs  that  produced  larger  chickens,  but  also  gave  the  best 
results  in  fertility  and  hatching  power,  and  that  these  differences 
were  apparent  for  many  weeks  after  hatching,  in  size  and  health  of 
chickens.  Hens  have  the  advantage  of  having  had  an  opportunity 
to  prove  themselves.  The  breeder  has  had  an  opportunity  to  observe 
and  eliminate  during  the  two  or  three  years  of  observation  the 
weaker  and  less  attractive,  poorer  developed,  less  productive  and 
improperly  marked  fowls.  Two-year-old  hens  lay  less  eggs  during 
the  Winter  season  than  do  those  that  are  one  year  old  (pullet  year), 
and  therefore,  other  conditions  being  equal,  should  have  greater 
vitality  and  hence  should  transmit  more  vigor  to  the  chicks.  Hens 
that  have  not  laid  freely  during  the  early  Winter,  other  conditions 
being  equal,  are  more  likely  to  produce  a  larger  supply  of  hatchable 
eggs  at  the  right  time  for  hatching.  It  does  not  follow  that  just 
because  hens  do  not  lay  during  the  Winter  that  their  eggs  will  be 
more  hatchable.  They  may  fail  to  lay  because  improperly  fed  or 
housed  and  in  that  event  the  eggs  would  be  likely  to  be  less  hatch- 
able.  Hens  having  reached  maturity  are  more  likely  to  throw  their 
energy  into  eggs  of  larger  size.  The  size  of  the  eggs,  other  things 
being  equal,  determines  the  size  of  the  chicks.  By  increasing  the 
natural  length  of  life  of  productiveness  of  the  domestic  fowl  we 
decrease  the  liability  to  mortality  in  rearing,  chickens  having  been 
bred  to  inherit  a  tendency  to  live.  By  breeding  fowls  to  lay  a  rea- 
sonable number  of  eggs  for  two  or  three  years  in  succession  we 
v.astly  decrease  the  number  of  chickens  to  be  reared  each  jear  tP 


BREEDING  THE  BUSINESS  HEN.  % 

renew  the  flock.     It  is  better  to  do  this  than  to  breed  an  excessively 
high-producing,  short-Hved  fowl. 

BREED  TO  IMPROVE  THE  QUALITY  OF  THE  EGGS.— 
The  business  hen  must  be  bred  to  lay  eggs  that  will  bring  the  high- 
est price.  These  should  be  of  large  size,  weighing  two  to  2%  ounces 
each,  uniform  egg  shape,  uniform  light  or  dark  brown  or  white  in 
color.  Such  eggs  bring  from  five  to  10  cents  per  dozen  more  than 
eggs  irregular  in  shape  and  size  and  differing  in  color.  This  would 
make  a  net  difference  of  50  to  75  cents  per  year  in  the  selling  value 
of  the  eggs  per  hen.  The  greatest  improvement  in  breeding  poultry 
lies  in  the  direction  of  improving  the  quality  rather  than  in  increas- 
ing the  quality  of  eggs.  Improving  the  quality  of  eggs  as  to  color 
and  shape  may  be  brought  about  entirely  by  selecting  eggs  of  the 
right  type  for  hatching.  It  costs  no  more  to  produce  eggs  of  the 
right  color  and  shape  than  it  does  to  produce  eggs  of  irregular 
shape  and  color,  so  far  as  cost  of  food  and  care  are  concerned. 
Improvement  in  the  quality  of  eggs  may  be  brought  about  by  observ- 
ing the  law  that  every  hen  is  born  to  lay  an  egg  of  given  size,  shape 
and  color,  and  to  continue  to  lay  eggs  of  similar  type  during  her 
natural  life,  with  the  exception  that  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  eggs 
to  grow  slightly  larger  as  the  hen  grows  older.  The  next  step  is  to 
apply  the  law  of  inheritance,  i.  e. :  that  "similar  tends  to  produce 
similar,"  which  means  that,  generally  speaking,  the  color,  shape  and 
size  of  the  egg  is  likely  to  be  transmitted  from  parent  to  offspring. 
By  using  only  eggs  for  hatching  that  are  perfect  in  size,  shape  and 
color  for  a  few  years,  the  quality  can  be  radically  changed  in  these 
respects.  In  many  instances  this  will  mean  an  increase  in  the  selling 
quality  of  the  eggs  as  much  as  15  to  20  per  cent.  This  is  the  easiest 
way  to  increase  the  income  from  poultry. 

BREEDING  FOR  MEAT  PRODUCTION.— This  is  easier  than 
breeding  for  egg  production  and  fancy  points.  The  first  essentials 
for  meat  production  are  a  strong  constitution,  a  good  appetite,  a 
meat  producing  stock.  The  selection  of  these  qualities  calls  for  a 
tendency  to  increased  longevity.  Developing  the  true  meat  type  will 
have  a  tendency  to  build  up  instead  of  break  down  the  natural  physi- 
cal qualities  of  the  animal.  Experience  and  experiments  indicate 
that  in  developing  superior  meat  qualities  in  the  general  purpose  or 
meat  type  fowl  there  is  a  tendency  to  reduce  egg  production.  This 
results  in  reducing  the  number  of  offspring  to  be  secured  from  the 
highest  type  of  meat  fowl,  and  constitutes  a  serious  difficulty  in  the 
profitable  breeding  of  fowls  for  meat  production.  In  breeding  for 
meat  type,  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  select  from  among  a  large 
number  of  individuals  those  that  grow  most  rapidly  and  reach  in 


loo  The  BUSINESS  HEN. 

the  shortest  length  of  time  the  desired  weight  for  any  given  purpose. 
By  selecting  individuals  that  best  meet  the  requirements  as  to  type 
and  quick  growth,  great  improvem.ent  can  be  made  in  the  meat  quali- 
ties of  our  fowls.  By  a  close  study  of  type  and  careful  selection  of 
individuals  for  breeding,  great  gain  can  be  made  in  developing  a 
type  that  will  give  the  least  possible  loss  in  dressing. 

KEEP  PUREBRED  POULTRY.— The  chief  advantage  of 
keeping  purebred  poultry  as  com.pared  to  common  or  graded  stock 
is  to  be  found  in  the  many  advantages  resulting  from  the  uniformity 
in  the  stock  and  its  products.  These  advantages  will  be  treated 
separately.  Pure  breeds  can  be  bred  more  successfully  because  more 
satisfactory  results  can  be  secured  in  feeding  purebred  poultry  for 
egg  production  because  they  are  similar  in  their  tastes,  habits,  pro- 
lificacy, and  character  of  grov/th.  This  uniformity  in  type  is  most 
likely  to  be  found  in  pure  breeds.  Where  only  one  distinct  type  of 
fowls  is  fed  in  a  flock,  better  results  can  be  secured  from  it,  because 
each  fowl  will  be  more  likely  to  be  fed  according  to  its  particular 
needs.  The  heavier  and  slower  and  more  phlegmatic  types  are,  such 
as  Brahmas  and  Cochins,  etc.,  the  more  likely  they  are  to  be  over- 
fed when  fed  on  similar  food  and  given  similar  care  as  the  more 
active,  sprightly,  prolific  types  of  fowls.  Better  results  can  be  secured 
in  feeding  purebred  fowls  for  meat  production.  Where  there  are 
several  types  in  one  flock  growthy  fowls  will  be  disturbed  by  the 
active,  noisy  fowls.  This  is  extremely  marked  where  the  four 
extremes  of  type  are  allowed  to  run  together;  the  slow,  clumsy, 
good-natured  Asiatics  (Brahmas,  Cochins,  etc.),  the  strong,  active 
Americans  (Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  etc.),  the  strong,  asser- 
tive precocious  Mediterraneans  (Leghorns,  Minorcas,  etc.),  and  the 
active,  quarrelsome  Games. 

No  ration  can  be  fed  or  any  system  of  care  practiced  which  will 
exactly  suit  the  four  extreme  types  in  one  flock.  Uniformity  in 
habit  and  type  of  the  fowl  in  the  pure  breeds  will  enable  rations  to 
be  fed  which  will  more  likely  produce  similar  results  and  more 
satisfactory  growth.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  way  various 
individuals  make  use  of  food.  SomiC  have  a  tendency  to  produce 
growth,  others  fat,  and  still  others  to  produce  eggs.  Purebreds  are 
more  uniform  in  appearance  when  bred  for  market.  Uniformity  in 
appearance  of  dressed  poultry  has  much  to  do  with  the  selling  price. 
A  consignment  of  dressed  poultry,  some  large,  others  small,  some 
with  feathered  shanks,  others  clean,  some  with  yellow  skin,  others 
white,  some  with  black  shins,  others  with  yellow  or  pink,  some  with 
long  thin  bodies,  others  with  rounded,  plump  bodies,  makes  a  motley 
bunch  which  no  one  wants  at  a  fair  price.     Purebred  fowls  lay  eggs 


BREEDING  THE  BUSINESS  HEN.  101 

more  uniform  in  color,  shape  and  size.  Uniformity  in  the  appearance 
of  eggs  as  well  as  their  eating  quality  determines  their  selling  value. 
A  crate  containing  large  and  small  eggs,  light  and  dark  brown, 
pink,  cream-colored  and  white  eggs,  roundish,  long  and  elliptical 
shaped  eggs,  have  the  appearance  of  being  ordinary,  picked-up  store 
eggs,  and  therefore  will  bring  the  lowest  possible  price.  A  crate  of 
all  brown,  or  all  white,  or  all  cream-colored  eggs,  uniform  also  in 
size  and  shape,  have  the  earmarks  of  quality  and  bring  the  highest 
possible  price.  Eggs  from  the  pure  breed,  other  things  being  equal, 
are  likely  to  give  better  results  in  hatching.  Better  results  in  hatch- 
ing can  be  secured  where  there  is  uniformity  in  type  and  characteris- 
tics of  the  body  of  the  fowls.  Big  and  little  eggs  do  not  get  the 
same  degree  of  heat  in  the  incubator,  because  the  larger  eggs,  being 
higher  up,  are  in  the  warmer  stratum  of  air.  A  person  can  learn 
how  to  handle  a  certain  machine  to  hatch  eggs  from  a  certain  breed, 
but  he  cannot  run  the  machine  to  meet  all  sizes,  shapes  and  condi- 
tions of  eggs  at  one  time.  When  fowls  of  different  types  and  char-' 
acters  are  crossed,  it  seems  reasonable  to  believe  that  misfits  would 
be  produced.  For  instance,  a  chick  which  should  have  a  thin  shell, 
may  be  born  in  a  thick  shell.  A  chick  inheriting  the  large  body  of 
the  father  may  be  inclosed  in  the  small  shell  produced  by  the  small 
mother.  The  shells  evaporate  very  rapidly.  The  more  differences 
there  are  in  the  types  of  the  breeding  flock,  the  greater  will  be  the 
variation. 

Purebred  fowls  have  greater  power  of  transmitting  their  quali- 
ties to  their  offspring.  Purebred  fowls  should  have  the  advantage  of 
the  developing  influence  of  generations  of  intelligent  feeding,  mat- 
ing and  care,  and  therefore  ordinarily  will  have  greater  prohficacy, 
and  more  profitable  growth  because  they  are  further  removed  from 
the  wild  type,  which  is  limited  to  a  few  distinct  varieties  for  the 
most  part  of  small  size  and  not  suited  to  the  demiands  of  the  market. 
Pure  breeding  carries  with  it  the  decided  advantage  of  breeding  more 
true  to  a  given  standard  and  for  a  special  purpose  type,  so  that  there 
will  be  greater  certainty  of  producing  value  in  the  oft'spring,  when 
such  value  is  possessed  by  the  parents.  A  pure  breed,  because  more 
valuable  and  attractive,  will  be  given  more  and  better  care,  because 
the  owner  places  greater  value  on  it  and  takes  pride  in  it.  The 
market  value  of  fowls  for  breeding  is  far  greater  than  the  value  to 
eat  or  for  eggs. 

THE  NUMBER  OF  VARIETIES  TO  KEEP.— One  variety 
is  all  that  should  be  kept  at  first  for  commercial  egg  or  meat  pro- 
duction. Any  one  variety,  produced  in  its  perfection,  will  furnish 
business  enough  for  men  of  the  best  executive  ability  and  business 


102  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

capacity.  The  more  fowls  of  a  single  breed  that  are  kept,  the. more 
the  poultryman  becomes  an  authority  and  popular  headquarters  for 
that  particular  breed.  Where  one  breed  is  kept,  the  danger  of  fowls 
becoming  mixed  and  valuable  breed  qualities  lost,  is  eliminated. 
After  a  poultryman  has  the  business  thoroughly  established  with 
one  breed,  he  may,  perhaps,  with  profit,  keep  a  second  breed  if  it  is 
to  supply  a  different  kind  of  product  for  market.  Two  breeds,  one 
a  distinctive  Qgg  producing  fowl  and  the  other  a  pronounced  meat 
type  fowl,  frequently  can  be  kept  to  advantage  on  the  same  farm, 
where  both  breeds  are  kept  separate  and  pure  and  are  bred  in  large 
enough  quantities  to  supply  large  markets.  Where  the  poultryman  is 
to  make  a  business  of  exhibiting  poultry,  and  advertising  extensively 
eggs  and  stock  for  sale  for  breeding  purposes,  it  may  be  desirable  to 
keep  several  varieties,  but  this  would  never  apply  where  a  stock  is 
kept  for  commercial  purposes. 

CROSSING. — The  crossing  of  two  pure  breeds  in  most  instances 
is  a  mistake.  It  frequently  has  been  done  in  the  belief  that  some- 
thing was  to  be  gained  in  vigor,  size  and  &gg  yield.  Careful  records 
of  the  results  of  crosses  indicate  that  v/hile  the  size  of  chickens  may 
be  increased  by  crossing  with  a  male  larger  than  the  hens,  or  that 
egg  production  may  be  increased  by  crossing  the  poorer  layers  with 
a  male  from  the  egg-laying  breed,  the  gain  in  weight  or  egg  yield 
generally  is  not  equal  to  the  weight  or  the  egg  yield  of  the  pure 
breed,  which  was  used  to  increase  the  size  or  egg  production.  In 
other  words,  better  results  generally  will  be  obtained,  if  the  pure 
breed  which  best  meets  our  needs  for  any  given  purpose  is  bred  pure 
and  only  the  best  individuals  are  used  for  breeding.  In  an  experi- 
ment at  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture,  where  Single 
Comb  White  Leghorns  and  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  were  compared 
with  their  crosses,  it  was  found  that  the  Leghorns  were  far  superior 
as  egg  producers  to  the  Rocks  or  either  of  their  crosses  and  that  the 
Rocks  were  superior  to  the  Leghorns  or  either  of  their  crosses  for 
quick  growth  and  size  as  meat  fowls,  and  that  nothing  was  gained  in 
health  or  vigor  in  either  cross  as  compared  to  the  pure  breeds,  as 
shown  by  the  following  table : 

White  Rock  on  Leghorn 

Leghorn.  Leghorn.  Rock,  on  Rock. 

'Fertile    eggs   to    total 94.7  83.2  84.2  90. 

Weight  of  chicks  at  7  months 3.42              4.35              5.05  3.75 

Eggs   produced    175               146  124  144 

Even  if  anything  could  be  gained  in  egg  yield  or  weight  by  cross- 
ing, it  would  be  questionable  if  it  would  not  be  better  in  the  long 
run  to  keep  a  pure  breed  because  of  the  nejcessity  in  crossing  of 
purchasing  or  breeding  two  pure  breeds  each  year  in  order  to  make 


BREEDING  THE  BUSINESS  HEN.  103 

the  crosses,  and  the  necessity  which  this  practice  would  require  of 
providing  separate  pens  and  yards  for  all  three  or  four  classes  of 
fowls,  i.  e.,  for  the  crosses  and  each  of  the  pure  breeds.  Moreover, 
all  the  arguments  advanced  for  keeping  pure  breeds  apply  as  reasons 
why  we  should  not  cross  our  fov/ls.  In  one  year  by  crossing  two 
pure  breeds,  we  destroy  the  constructive  work  of  generations  of 
careful  breeding  in  developing  them  to  their  present  state  of  per- 
fection of  type  and  performance,  and  it  would  require  a  decade  of 
the  same  careful  selection  and  mating  to  breed  up  to  the  former 
perfection  the  two  pure  breeds  from  the  crosses.  Why  this  destruc- 
tive waste  of  energy?  A  person  who  appreciates  uniformity  of  type 
of  body  and  of  egg,  who  has  any  conception  of  the  intrinsic  value 
of  the  quality  of  transmitting  these  qualities  to  the  offspring  finds 
little  inducement  in  cross  breeding.  If  new  life  and  vigor  is  to  be 
considered,  it  is  far  better  to  get  this  by  introducing  new  blood  of 
the  same  variety.  The  appearance  alone  of  a  flock  of  cross-bred 
fowls  when  compared  with  the  pure  breeds  from  which  they  came 
should  be  sufficient  argument  to  cause  a  breeder  to  hesitate  to  resort 
to  crossing.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  second  or  third  genera- 
tion. One  could  not  take  pride  in  looking  at,  much  less  in  showing 
a  cross-bred  flock  of  various  sizes,  shapes  and  colors.  If  we  could 
see  more  dollars  in  the  crosses  than  in  the  pure  breeds,  we  might 
be  able  to  overlook  appearances,  but  in  this  instance  both  profit  and 
beauty  are  to  be  gained  by  breeding  the  pure  breeds. 

GRADING  UP  THE  FLOCK.— Grading  up  the  flock  may  be 
desirable  unless  a  pure  breed  is  to  be  kept.  It  is  not  usually  to  be 
recommended  because  it  is  so  easy  to  secure  pure-bred  stock  and 
eggs.  A  superior  male  of  the  breed  desired,  when  crossed  by  com- 
mon stock  or  a  mixed  breed,  is  likely  to  quickly  and  very  materially 
improve  the  quality  of  the  ofispring.  The  continued  use  of  the  pure- 
bred males  of  the  same  variety  would  result  in  three  or  four  gen- 
erations in  the  production  of  a  flock  which  to  all  appearances  would 
be  equal  to  the  pure  breed,  except  in  breeding  qualities.  Generally, 
however,  time  and  money  will  be  saved  by  commencing  with  a  pure 
breed.  There  is  always  more  or  less  uncertainty  as  to  the  result  to 
be  obtained  in  grading  up  a  flock.  When  this  method  of  improving 
a  flock  is  tried,  males  of  the  same  breed  and  similar  line  of  breeding 
should  be  used,  if  possible,  each  year.  When  purebred  males  can 
be  secured  in  most  neighborhoods  at  approximately  market  prices 
for  killing,  there  is  no  excuse  for  anyone  having  mongrel  poultry. 
Grading  offers  the  easiest  and  cheapest  way  to  get  uniformity  and 
superior  quality  of  meat  or  eggs  where  one  has  common  mongrel 
stock,  and  with  proper  selection  of  females  most  closely  resembling 


104  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

the  purebred  male  used  each  year,  surprising  improvement  in  quality 
and  a  proportionate  increase  in  profits  may  be  expected. 

MONGRELS  AND  BARNYARD  FOWLS.— They  are  the  last 
resort  in  the  poultry  business.  They  are  better  than  none,  but  they 
are  to  modern  poultry  husbandry  what  cider  apples  are  to  the  choicest 
modern  varieties.  Why  begin  50  years  behind  the  times  in  getting  a 
start?  Why  not  begin  where  the  other  fellow  leaves  off,  up-to-date, 
by  securing  a  small  start  by  the  purchase  of  a  few  eggs  or_  chickens 
of  a  good  modern  farm  run  on  pure  breed  principles,  and  thus  get 
the  full  value  of  the  food  and  care  which  you  give  to  your  poultry, 
or  at  least  by  grading  up  with  a  purebred  male  ?  All  pure  breeds  are 
not  superior  necessarily  just  because  they  are  pure  breeds.  There 
are  many  blue-blooded  aristocrats  in  the  poultry  world  who  travel 
on  their  shape  and  dote  on  their  pedigree  and  who,  like  some 
humans,  so  far  as  any  honest  Vv^ork  is  concerned,  take  it  for  granted 
that  the  world  owes  them  a  living.  The  old  adage  should  be 
applied  in  the  breeding  of  the  "business  hen,"  "to  prove  all  things 
and  hold  fast  to  that  which  is  good." 

NUMBER  OF  FEMALES  TO  ONE  MALE.— The  number  of 
females  which  can  safely  be  allowed  to  one  male  depends  more 
upon  the  natural  reproductive  power  of  the  male  and  female  than 
upon  the  breed.  In  general  more  males  are  required  with  the  heavy 
breeds.  The  safe  rule,  other  conditions  being  equal  as  to  health, 
size  and  season,  is  one  male  to  eight  or  10  females  for  Brahmas, 
Cochins,  etc.,  one  male  to  15  or  20  females  for  Plymouth  Rocks, 
White  Wyandottes,  etc.,  and  one  male  to  20  or  25  females  for  Leg- 
horns, Hamburgs,  etc. 

LENGTH  OF  FECUNDATION.— Eggs  are  likely  to  be  fer- 
tile after  a  male  has  been  in  the  flock  from  seven  to  10  days,  depend- 
ing upon  the  condition  of  the  male  and  females,  and  the  number  in 
the  pen,  etc.  If  mating  should  take  place  soon  after  an  egg  has  been 
laid,  the  next  G.gg  to  be  laid  probably  will  prove  fertile.  Eggs  may 
remain  fertile  for  three  or  four  weeks  after  the  male  has  been 
removed  from  the  flock,  but  it  is  generally  not  safe  to  use  the  eggs 
for  hatching  after  the  male  has  been  removed  one  week.  When 
exchanging  males  in  the  flock,  it  is  better  not  to  use  the  eggs  for 
hatching  until  two  or  three  weeks.  The  male  last  with  the  flock  will 
be  more  likely  to  dominate  in  fertilizing  the  Qgg. 

EXCHANGING  THE  MALES  IN  THE  BREEDING  PENS. 
- — The  practice  of  keeping  two  males  for  each  flock,  only  one  of 
which  is  permitted  to  run  with  the  flock,  has  several  decided  advan- 
tages. Tv/ice  as  many  hens  can  be  kept  in  one  flock.  The  males 
Jiave  an  opportunity  to  recuperate  as  compared  v/ith  letting  two  or 


BREEDING  THE  BUSINESS  HEN.  105 

more  males  run  together  with  the  flock;  it  prevents  fighting  which 
may  result  in  permanent  injury  and  impaired  action.  It  also  elimin- 
ates fear  on  the  part  of  either  or  both,  which  would  interfere  with 
their  digestion  and,  therefore,  with  their  good  health  and  efficiency. 
Where  a  large  number  of  breeders  are  kept  and  small  pens  of 
special  matings  are  not  necessary,  the  most  satisfactory  method  is  to 
allow  all  the  breeders  to  run  together  on  a  large  common  range. 
The  flocks  have  a  tendency  to  separate  into  natural  groups,  one  male 
with  each.  By  this  means  serious  injury  from  fighting  does  not 
occur,  because  of  the  opportunity  for  the  more  timid  males  to  get 
away.  This  system  insures  the  largest  influence  of  the  strongest 
and  best  individuals  and  provides  an  opportunity  for  natural  selection. 

INFLUENCE  OF  MALES  ON  EGG  PRODUCTION.— Ex- 
periments tried  at  Cornell  and  the  New  York  Experiment  Station 
at  Geneva  indicate  that  the  male  does  not  influence  the  productivity 
of  the  flock  with  which  he  runs.  Therefore,  except  in  the  cases  of 
breeding  flocks,  the  males  would  be  a  disadvantage  instead  of  an 
advantage,  especially  if  more  than  one  were  in  a  breeding  pen.  This 
is  due  to  the  injuries  caused  by  fighting.  The  space  required  by 
males  in  flocks  for  commercial  egg  production  could  be  better  utilized 
by  hens.  Males  in  the  flock  during  warm  weather  would  be  a  detri- 
ment on  account  of  producing  fertile  eggs,  which  are  known  to  have 
poorer  keeping  qualities. 

INFLUENCE  OF  PREVIOUS  IMPREGNATION.— Whatever 
may  be  true  of  the  influence  of  previous  impregnation  on  the  future 
offspring,  it  may  be  put  down  as  not  true  of  poultry  beyond  the 
short  life  of  the  spermatozoons,  which  would  not  extent  beyond  a 
few  weeks  with  fowls  and  a  season  with  turkeys.  Therefore,  it 
would  be  perfectly  safe  to  breed,  after  a  few  weeks  absence  from 
a  male,  from  hens  of  any  variety  that  have  been  previously  mated 
to  a  different  variety  with  a  certainty  of  knowing  that  no  effects  of 
the  previous  mating  will  appear  in  the  offspring.  There  being  no 
complete  connection  between  the  fertilized  &gg  and  the  hen  and 
because  the  life  of  the  male  germs  is  known  to  be  short,  it  is 
impossible  that  his  influence  should  continue  indefinitely. 

CARE  OF  THE  MALES  DURING  THE  NON-BREEDING 
SEASON. — There  are  three  ways  of  handling  males  during  the  non- 
breeding  season.  The  first  is  to  keep  them  confined  in  small  separate 
coops  by  themselves.  This  is  expensive  as  to  labor  and  equipment 
and  does  not  permit  of  sufficient  exercise.  The  second  is  to  allow 
the' males  to  run  with  the  flock  all  year.  Except  for  the  disad- 
vantage of  producing  fertile  eggs  during  the  hot  weather,  this  is  the 
most  economical  and  best  method,  so  far  as  the  welfare  and  well- 


106  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

being  of  the  hens  and  males  are  concerned.  The  third  practice  is  to 
remove  all  males  from  the  flocks  during  the  Summer  and  keep  them 
in  a  flock  by  themselves,  far  removed  from  the  hens  to  prevent  fight- 
ing. If  a  large  range  with  numerous  feeding  and  watering  places  is 
provided  and  if  the  males  are  watched  at  first  to  prevent  serious 
injury  from  fighting,  the  plan  works  well.  It  is  of  utmost  import- 
ance that  whatever  system  may  be  practiced,  the  males  must  not  be 
allowed  to  become  frightened,  because  this  and  the  lack  of  proper 
feeding  and  wholesome  surroundings  will  certainly  lower  the  vitality. 

CONTROLLING  SEX. — No  one,  so  far  as  the  writer  knows, 
has  yet  solved  the  mystery  of  controlling  the  sex  in  breeding  poul- 
try. Many  theories  have  been  advanced,  the  chief  of  which  is  the 
one  that  the  shape  of  the  ^gg  may  be  used  as  an  indication  of  the 
sex.  For  instance,  long  eggs  will  be  more  likely  to  produce  cock- 
erels, and  round  ones  pullets.  The  claim  that  mating  young  males 
and  old  hens  will  result  in  producing  more  pullets  and  that  old 
males  mated  to  pullets  will  produce  more  cockerels  has  been  tried 
repeatedly  without  establishing  the  claim.  It  has  been  claimed  that 
the  season  of  hatching  influences  or  determines  the  sex,  the  general 
belief  being  that  the  early  hatches  appear  to  contain  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  pullets  than  do  the  late  hatches.  All  these  and  other  theories 
of  sex  control  have  abundant  verification  in  specific  instances  where 
they  have  proved  true,  but  in  as  many  other  instances  the  reverse 
has  been  true. 

HOW  TO  INTRODUCE  NEW  BLOOD.— If  one  has  a  choice 
strain  of  fowls  and  desires  to  bring  in  new  blood,  it  is  better  to 
take  two  years  to  do  it.  This  is  done  in  order  to  test  the  results 
on  a  few  individuals  before  trying  it  on  all  the  breeding  flock. 
Serious  results  from  the  introduction  of  impure  blood  may  thus  be 
avoided.  It  is  better  to  purchase  a  few  superior  hens  and  mate  them 
with  your  best  males  or  to  secure  superior  males  and  mate  with  a 
few  of  your  best  females  and  study  the  offspring  for  a  year,  and 
then,  if  they  are  satisfactory,  to  use  them  by  mating  with  the  balance 
of  the  flock. 

IN-BREEDING. — There  is  little  danger  from  in-breeding  where 
a  large  number  of  fowls  of  the  same  variety  are  kept  if  reasonable 
care  is  exercised  each  year  in  selecting  only  vigorous  breeders.  If 
it  becomes  desirable  to  introduce  nt\Y  blood,  the  rule  should  be  not 
to  do  so  just  because  it  is  new  blood,  but  because  it  is  superior  and 
not  simply  equal  to  j^our  own  in  vigor  and  other  qualities.  The  com- 
mon notion  that  it  is  necessary  each  year  to  exchange  males  tends 
to  keep  the  flock  only  equal  to  the  average  of  those  who  .are  con- 
cerned, and  prevents  improvement  that  might  be  secured  by  develop- 
ing a  superior  strain  by  judicious  line  breeding. 


BREEDING  TEIE  BUSINESS  HEN.  107 

LINE  BREEDING. — This  term  applies  to  the  practice  of  keep- 
ing separate  strains  or  matings  on  the  same  farm,  always  going 
systematically  to  one  line  for  the  males  and  to  the  other  line  for 
the  females,  these  two  lines  having  been  started  by  mating  the  best 
male  which  forms  the  male  line  to  the  best  female  which  forms  the 
female  line,  and  thereafter  to  continue  mating  the  male  offspring  of 
the  male  line  to  the  female  offspring  of  the  female  line,  or  the  orig- 
inal male  to  his  daughter  or  the  female  to  the  son,  and  each  genera- 
tion to  continue  to  systematically  mate  from  these  male  and  female 
lines,  which  will  tend  to  produce  in  each  generation  a  line  having  a 
larger  and  larger  proportion  of  the  blood  of  the  original  female  on 
the  one  side  and  a  line  having  a  larger  and  larger  proportion  of  the 
original  male  on  the  other,  and  an  intermxcdiate  line  may  be  kept,  if 
so  desired,  that  will  contain  one-half  of  each  line.  Line  breeding 
is  a  type  of  systematic  in-breeding  and  is  practiced  in  order  to  inten- 
sify and  fix  certain  qualities  and  to  avoid  as  far  as  possible  the  evil 
results  of  close  indiscriminate  in-breeding. 

GETTING  A  START  WITH  PUREBRED  POULTRY.— 
When  one  already  has  poultry  and  desires  to  change  the  variety,  the 
cheapest  way  to  get  a  new  flock  is  by  the  purchase  of  breeding  stock 
in  the  Fall  of  the  year,  when  breeders  must  sell  hens  to  make  room 
for  pullets.  This  method  has  the  advantage  of  providing  hens 
instead  of  pullets  for  breeders  the  following  Spring,  and  to  purchase 
the  stock  when  it  is  at  its  worst,  at  the  close  of  the  laying  and 
moulting  season,  hence  to  note  lack  of  vigor  and  faulty  feathering, 
etc.  Each  hen  should  be  counted  on  with  good  care  to  produce 
during  the  2J^  to  three  months  laying  season  at  least  45  to  50  eggs, 
30  of  which  probably  could  be  used  for  hatching.  These,  at  the 
regular  prices  of  eggs  for  hatching,  should  pay  for  the  hen  and 
male  and  there  should  be  left  the  stock  and  a  good  margin  of  profit 
on  the  investment.  If  a  start  is  made  in  the  Spring,  the  high  prices 
charged  for  breeding  stock  generally  makes  it  desirable  to  purchase 
eggs  or  day-old  chicks,  the  last  in  particular  if  a  large  number  are 
to  be  reared.  More  chances  are  taken  in  purchasing  the  eggs  as  to 
their  infertility,  weak  vitahty  and  the  uncertainty  of  incubating  and 
brooding.  However,  when  the  business  has  already  been  established 
and  the  element  of  time  in  making  the  change  is  less  important,  the 
purchase  of  eggs  or  day-old  chicks  from  a  well-known  reliable 
breeder  enables  one   to  get  a  start  with  the  least  possible  outlay. 


CHAPTER  X. 

A  CONNECTICUT  MAN'S  EXPERIENCE. 

Mr.  Geo.  A,  Cosgrove,  of  Connecticut,  gives  the  following  state- 
ment of  personal  experience  with  hens  : 

Some  years  ago  a  prominent  magazine  published  an  article  in 
which  was  expressed  the  thought  that  there  comes  a  time  in  the  life 
of  very  many  men,  especially  in  the  cities,  when  there  is  an  ever- 
deepening  cloud  overshadowing  their  lives,  which  colors  all  their 
thoughts,  and  which  cannot  be  shaken  off.  It  persistently  intrudes 
itself  into  all  their  pleasures,  and  is  not  absent  from  their  daily 
tasks.  And  the  shadow  deepens  as  the  years  roll  on.  That  shadow 
is  caused  by  the  question  "What  shall  I  do  when  increasing  age 
causes  me  to  lose  my  situation ;  how  shall  I  support  my  family  when 
I  lose  my  job?"  And  the  question  v/ill  not  be  put  down,  but  con- 
stantly recurs  and  demands  to  be  answered.  As  the  weeks  and 
months  roll  by  the  man  never  loses  consciousness  of  the  fact  that 
any  day  the  time  may  come  when  it  must  be  answered.  Honest, 
sober,  industrious  men,  city  born  and  bred,  who  know  nothing  what- 
ever about  country  life,  or  how  to  perform  the  labor  necessary  on  a 
farm,  still  read  with  mingled  hope  and  fear  the  advertisements  of 
cheap  farms  for  sale,  and  wonder  if  they  could  make  a  living  for 
themselves  and  their  families  on  a  farm,  and  it  is  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  such  men  that  this  chapter  is  written.  Success  or  failure 
v/ill  depend  largely  upon  ^he  attitude  towards  the  undertaking  which 
his  wife  and  family  assume.  If  they  realize  fully  the  situation,  and 
know  that  it  is  almost  their  only  chance  to  make  a  living;  if  they  are 
willing  for  a  time  to  deny  themselves  city  comforts  and  luxuries ;  if 
the  wife  will  loyally  support  the  efforts  and  labors  of  the  husband, 
and  not  add  to  his  burdens  by  fault-finding  and  worse  than  useless 
regrets ;  if  they  will  put  themselves  in  sympathy  with  nature  and 
enjoy  the  varying  seasons,  and  "bird  and  bee  and  flov/er;"  if  they 
will  appreciate  at  its  true  worth  the  independence  and  safety  of  the 
farm,  then  indeed  may  they  hope  to  succeed  in  their  farm  life,  for 
there  is  nothing  in  the  farm  labor  that  cannot  be  quickly  learned  by 
any  man  who  has  brains  enough  to  be  a  good  mechanic.  The  writer 
speaks  from  the  standpoint  of  personal  experience,  for  he  moved  out 
of  New  York  when  57  years  of  age,  broken  in  health,  with  no  boys 


A  CONNECTICUT  MAN'S  EXPERIENCE.  109 

to  help,  and  absolutely  without  farm  experience,  and  bought  a  run- 
down farm  in  northeast  Connecticut.  Now,  after  15  years  have 
elapsed,  the  only  regret  is  that  v/e  did  not  leave  the  city  10  years 
sooner.  In  these  15  years  health  has  been  regained,  the  value  of  the 
farm  trebled,  and  a  few  dollars  laid  away  for  "old  age."  Of  course 
we  have  made  many  mistakes ;  if  we  could  begin  again  and  have 
the  benefit  of  present  experience  to  commence  with,  far  greater  suc- 
cess from  the  money  standpoint  could  be  achieved.  But  there  are 
other  successes  than  financial  ones ;  the  building  up  and  beautifying 
of  a  home,  acquiring  the  respect  and  esteem  of  one's  neighbors  and 
townsmen,  as  evidenced  by  being  called  to  public  service  in  the  State ; 
the  strengthening  of  one's  own  character,  v/hich  the  independence  of 
farm  life  greatly  promotes,  all  these  are  successes  of  m.ore  value  to  a 
true  m^an  than  a  few  added  dollars. 

A  city  man  buying  a  farm  has  usually  a  very  indefinite  idea  of 
what  he  is  going  to  do  with  it.  Somehow  he  expects  the  farm  is 
going  to  provide  a  living  for  himself  and  family,  but  just  exactly 
how  he  really  does  not  know.  Of  course  he  expects  to  have  a  garden, 
raise  his  own  potatoes  and  with  cow  and  chickens  contrive  to  get  a 
living.  So  he  drifts  along  for  a  few  years  without  "getting  any- 
where." It  is  far  better  to  have  a  definite  plan,  to  decide  on  what 
you  would  like  to  do,  what  you  feel  best  fitted  to  undertake.  Then 
before  concluding  the  purchase,  go  over  the  farm  very  carefully  and 
see  if  it  is  fitted  for  the  carrying  out  of  the  plan  you  have  in  mind. 
What  are  the  facilities  for  getting  the  product  to  market  after  you 
have  raised  it,  and  is  the  soil  suitable?  I  have  seen  land  on  the 
very  top  of  a  round  hill  that  was  so  wet  as  to  be  unfit  to  cultivate. 
Note  particularly  the  distance  to  the  nearest  grain  store,  also  to  the 
express  office.  It  makes  a  big  difference  whether  you  must  spend 
five  or  six  hours  on  the  road  once  or  twice  a  week,  or  one  or  tv/o 
hours.  The  water  supply,  both  for  home  and  in  pasture,  should  also 
be  carefully  looked  after,  and  whether  it  fails  or  not  in  a  dry  time. 
The  wood  lot,  from  which  to  obtain  fuel,  should  consist  of  not  less 
than  30  acres.  No  one  thing  on  a  farm  contributes  more  to  the  com- 
fort and  happiness  of  the  farmer's  wife  than  plenty  of  properly  pre- 
pared and  dry  fuel.  Many  an  otherwise  good  farmer  fails  entirely 
to  consider  what  an  unnecessary  annoyance  it  is  to  his  wife  to  have 
the  wood  split  in  such  large  pieces  that  it  will  not  kindle  readil}'-. 
Keep  always  a  stock  of  old  rails  or  dead  wood  from  the  forest,  split 
into  pieces  not  larger  in  diameter  than  your  finger,  for  kindling  wood. 
Wood  should  always  be  cut  a  year  before  using,  so  that  it  v/ill  have 
time  to  get  the  sap  dried  out,  but  if  it  is  not  possible  to  do  this,  the 
seasoning  may  be  hastened  by  cutting  down  the  trees  before  the 


110  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

leaves  fall  and  letting  the  trees  lie  for  a  few  weeks  before  they  are 
cut  into  lengths.  The  leaves  will  draw  nearly  all  the  sap  out  of  the 
wood. 

Tv/o  of  the  things  most  frequently  thought  of  by  the  city  man 
as  a  means  of  getting  a  living  on  a  farm,  are  fruit  raising  and 
poultry  keeping.  The  two  can  be  very  easily  joined  together.  To 
the  high-growing  berries  like  blackberries  and  raspberries,  tied 
to  stakes  driven  into  the  ground,  poultry  do  very  little  damage,  as 
nearly  all  the  fruit  is  set  high  enough  to  be  out  of  their  reach. 
The  strawberry  patch  must  be  fenced  so  that  poultry  cannot  get 
at  it.  One  or  two  acres  of  good  land  devoted  to  raspberries  and 
blackberries  v/ill  produce  enough  to  support,  in  the  country,  an 
ordinary  family.  Of  course,  it  is  supposed  that  the  farmer  raises 
his  own  potatoes,  his  milk,  butter,  eggs,  poultry,  etc.,  so  that  he 
has  very  much  less  to  buy  than  when  living  in  the  city.  The  berry 
patch  is  an  ideal  place  to  raise  the  growing  chicks ;  they  help  to 
keep  down  the  weeds,  while  the  cultivating  of  the  ground  fur- 
nishes them  with  worms  and  bugs,  and  the  plants  furnish  shade 
and  shelter  from  hawks  and  crows  .  Suppose  a  man  has  decided 
to  go  into  poultry,  eggs,  and  berries  as  a  means  of  getting  a  living 
on  a  farm.  He  finds  that  he  can  ship  in  the  evening  the  berries 
picked  that  day,  and  that  they  will  arrive  at  his  city  market  next 
morning  early,  and  that  the  cost  of  express  service  is  not  so  high 
as  to  reduce  his  profit  unduty.  Now  he  is  ready  to  look  into  the 
poultry  part  of  his  undertaking.  Does  his  market  pay  a  premium 
for  white  eggs,  or  are  brown  eggs  preferred?  White  eggs  sell  for 
most  in  Nev/  York;  in  Boston  brown  eggs  bring  the  highest  price. 
All  the  small  breeds,  the  Leghorns,  Andalusians,  Anconas,  also  the 
larger  Minorcas,  lay  white  eggs.  The  Am.erican  breeds,  Plymouth 
Rocks,  Wyandottes,  R.  I.  Reds,  lay  mainly  brown  eggs.  But  the 
color,  especially  of  Wyandottes  and  R.  I.  Red  eggs,  varies  a  good 
deal,  shading  all  the  way  from  a  dark  brown  to  nearly  white.  For 
a  year  there  has  been  an  effort  under  way  at  Storrs  College  to 
produce  a  strain  of  White  Wyandottes  that  would  lay  white  eggs, 
the  object  being  to  produce  a  fowl  that  would  overcome  the  objec- 
tions to  the  IvCghorns,  viz.,  their  small  size,  high  flying,  and  the 
fact  that  they  do  not  lay  well  in  Winter  when  eggs  are  highest. 
Any  of  the  American  breeds  will  average  twice  the  size  of  ordinary 
Leghorns,  and  are  better  Winter  layers.  The  Leghorns  are  non- 
sitters,  and  an  incubator  becomes  a  necessity  unless  birds  of  some 
other  breed  are  bought  to  do  the  sitting.  In  fact  if  hundreds  of 
early  chicks  are  to  be  hatched,  one  or  more  incubators  are  a 
necessity,  no  matter  what  breed  is  kept.  Many  prefer  nowadays 
to  buy  the  chicks  already  hatched,  which  can  be  done  in  any  quan- 


A  CONNECTICUT  MAN'S  EXPERIENCE.  Ill 

tity  at  a  cost  usually  of  from  10  to  15  cents  apiece.  This  does 
away  with  the  cost  of  incubators,  eliminates  the  problem  of  what 
incubator  to  buy,  and  where  to  put  it,  and  on  the  whole  the  cost 
of  the  chicks  is  not  very  much  greater  than  it  would  cost  to  pro- 
duce them  at  home.  Of  course  the  above  applies  only  to  the  pro- 
ducer of  market  eggs  and  poultry;  the  poultry  fancier,  who  is  try- 
ing to  produce  high-class  breeding  stock  must  hatch  his  own  eggs. 
Having  settled  the  question  as  to  which  breed  he  is  going  to 
keep,  and  whether  it  is  the  production  of  fancy  stock,  or  simply 
market  eggs  and  poultry,  the  next  question  that  arises  is  the  loca- 
tion of  the  poultry  houses.  Nearness  to  the  water  supph^,  whether 
it  is  a  well  or  brook,  is  an  important  consideration  when  one  has 
to  carry  water  365  days  in  the  year.  By  all  means  avoid  a  damp 
or  low  situation ;  the  top  of  a  high  and  breezy  hill  is  better  than 
a  low  place  where  the  cold  and  damp  air  settles  at  night.  A 
gravelly  or  sandy  soil  is  much  better  than  a  rich  dark  loam ;  the 
latter  absorbs  the  droppings  and  becomes  in  time  an  ill-sm.elling, 
disease-breeding  place.  Don't  forget  that  the  fowl's  nose  is  only 
a  foot  from  the  ground.  If  the  fowls  are  to  be  kept  in  yards  and 
on  level  land,  arrange  the  houses  so  as  to  have  two  yards  to  each 
house,  that  one  may  be  plowed  and  a  crop  of  some  kind  grown 
to  take  the  foulness  out  of  the  soil,  while  the  other  yard  is  being 
used.  Rye  is  the  quickest  to  grow,  and  hardest  for  the  hens  to 
kill  out,  when  they  are  turned  into  that  yard,  which  they  should 
be  as  soon  as  the  rye  is  three  inches  high. 

Housing  is  one  of  the  biggest  problems  to  settle,  but  the  chap- 
ter devoted  to  that  subject  in  this  book  is  very  complete,  and  the 
novice  should  be  able  to  select  from  the  many  plans  something 
that  would  suit  both  his  taste  and  his  pocketbook.  The  writer  built 
houses  10  feet  square  on  the  ground, '  setting  the  houses  10  feet 
apart.  Then  by  roofing  over  the  space  between  the  houses  and 
boarding  up  the  back,  and  making  a  wire  netting-  front,  a  scratch- 
ing shed  was  made  for  each  house.  There  is  a  wire  netting  door 
in  the  front  of  each  shed,  and  the  coop  door  opens  into  the  scratch- 
ing shed.  These  houses  and  sheds  may  be  added  to  from  year 
to  year  as  the  increasing  number  of  fowls  require.  These  houses 
will  accommodate  25  to  30  fowls  each,  and  the  cost  for  material, 
including  windows  and  roofing,  is  about  $18.  Material  for  scratch- 
ing sheds  would  add  about  $6.  The  only  foundations  of  these 
houses  are  wide  chestnut  boards  sunk  into  the  earth,  and  project- 
ing above  the  ground  about  eight  inches.  The  sills  of  the  houses 
rest  on  the  edge  of  these  boards,  and  the  siding  comes  down  about 
two  inches  below  the   sills,   overlapping  the  joint   where   the   sills 


112  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

rest  on  the  chestnut  boards.  Pine  boards  sunk  in  the  earth  would 
rot  in  a  year,  but  chestnut  will  last  indefinitely.  In  my  case  they 
have  been  in  use  a  dozen  years  and  are  still  serviceable.  The 
earth  is  banked  up  against  the  boards  outside  so  that  water  runs 
away  from  the  coops.  These  chestnut  foundation  boards  keep  the 
frost  and  moisture  out  of  the  coops,  and  the  earth  floor  inside  is 
perfectly  dry  at  all  times,  and  never  freezes  in  the  coldest  Winter, 
although  the  door  is  always  kept  wide  open  except  during  driving 
snowstorms,  or  on  coldest  nights.  A  dry  earth  floor  in  the  poultry 
houses  is  much  better  than  a  board  floor;  it  makes  a  dust  bath  in 
which  all  the  fowls  can  wallow  at  the  same  time  if  they  desire, 
and  by  scraping  off  the  top  earth  and  scattering  it  an  inch  deep 
on  the  droppings  boards  under  the  roost,  it  makes  a  good  absorb- 
ent for  the  manure,  and  the  surface  of  the  floor  is  cleaned  at  the 
same  time.  It  is  the  practice  of  the  writer  to  put  one  or  two 
wagon  loads  of  sifted  earth  in  each  house  in  the  Fall,  using  the 
driest  earth  to  be  obtained. 

It  is  impossible  to  imagine  all  the  mistakes  a  novice  may 
make,  and  caution  against  each  one.  A  letter  recently  received 
from  a  lady  asking  instruction,  says :  *T  let  the  hen  set  six  weeks 
and  she  didn't  hatch  out  a  chick."  Now  with  an  tg,g  tester  she 
could  have  told  in  seven  days  whether  the  eggs  had  any  chance  to 
hatch  or  not,  and  in  any  case  it  was  useless  to  let  the  hen  sit 
more  than  three  weeks.  The  chick  will  begin  to  pick  at  things 
the  first  day  it  is  hatched,  but  that  must  not  be  taken  as  an  indi- 
cation that  it  is  hungry;  the  yolk  of  the  egg  which  the  chick's  body 
surrounded  before  it  kicked  itself  out  of  the  shell,  furnishes  all 
the  nutrition  the  chick  needs  for  three  or  four  days,  so  that  very 
little  food  should  be  given  for  the  first  fev^^  days,  and  only  what 
will  be  eaten  up  in  five  minutes,  but  it  should  be  given  five  or  six 
times  a  day  for  the  first  week.  It  does  not  make  a  great  deal  of 
difference  what  is  fed ;  any  of  the  advertised  chick  feeds  if  fresh 
and  sweet,  hard-boiled  egg  mixed  with  bread  crumbs,  or  rolled 
oats,  and  all  chopped  fine ;  and  I  have  raised  every  chick  feeding 
nothing  but  coarse  cracked  corn  taken  out  of  the  horse's  feed  bin. 
But  in  this  case  the  hen  and  chicks  were  down  at  my  barn,  and 
the  hen  balanced  the  ration  by  scratching  in  the  manure  pile.  ^ 

Brooding  the  chicks  is  a  most  important  matter;  it  is  very  easy 
to  spoil  a  lot  of  chicks,  either  in  the  hatching  or  brooding.  Brood- 
ers without  artificial  heat  are  coming  into  use  more  and  more. 
These  are  made  to  conserve  the  natural  heat  of  the  chicks  by 
blankets  or  covers  over  the  chicks,  additional  covers  being  used 
on  extra  cold'  nights.    A  sufficient  number  of  chicks,  25  to  50,  must 


A  CONNECTICUT  MAN'S  EXPERIENCE.  113 

be  kept  together  to  generate  enough  heat.  Where  two  or  three 
chicks  would  freeze  in  such  a  brooder,  25  or  30  would  be  quite 
comfortable.  These  brooders  must  be  used  in  a  house,  or  well 
covered  shed,  where  they  will  be  protected  from  storms  and  winds. 
I  took  a  common  soap  box,  cut  a  hole,  3x4  inches,  in  one  side 
near  the  bottom,  made  a  light  frame  that  would  just  drop  in  the 
box,  and  nailed  a  small  cleat  an  inch  from  the  top  edge  of  box 
on  each  end  for  the  frame  to  rest  on;  tacked  a  piece  of  muslin 
to  each  end  of  the  frame,  the  mushn  being  longer  than  the  frame, 
so  that  it  would  sag  down  in  the  middle;  filled  the  box  with  hay, 
and  put  23  chicks  a  day  old  on  the  hay.  The  muslin  "sheet"  rested 
on  the  chicks,  and  two  or  three  thicknesses  of  old  carpet  was  laid 
on  the  sheet  for  "blankets."  Three  half-inch  holes  were  bored  in 
each  end  for  ventilation.  The  chicks  using  this  box  as  their 
brooder,  lived  and  thrived  better  than  those  kept  in  heated  brood- 
ers. They  were  put  in  about  the  middle  of  April  when  water 
would  freeze  at  night.  The  box  was  kept  in  a  6xS-foot  house  and 
the  chicks  had  the  run  of  the  floor.  For  the  first  week  or  two 
it  is  necessary  to  push  the  chicks  back  into  the  box  after  feeding 
until  they  learn  to  go  in  themselves.  When  the  chicks  are  large 
enough  to  run  outdoors  it  is  a  good  practice  to  scatter  oats  thickly 
on  the  ground  where  they  run,  and  spade  them  under.  As  soon 
as  the  green  shoots  shov/  above  ground,  dig  a  little  hole  so  as  to 
expose  the;  white  rootlets  of  the  oats,  and  the  chicks  will  work 
and  scratch  among  them  all  day,  eating  the  whole  thing,  oats, 
roots  and  sprouts,  and  it  is  a  most  excellent  feed  for  them. 

As  the  chicks  get  to  broiler  size  the  cockerels  may  be  culled 
out  and  sent  to  market,  and  the  earlier  this  is  done  the  better  the 
price  obtained  vv^ill  be.  Two  things  are  to  be  carefully  guarded 
against ;  one  is  lice,  the  other  is  colds,  which  may  run  into  roup, 
the  dread  of  all  poultrymen.  "Blue  ointment,"  mercurial  ointment, 
which  can  be  cheaply  obtained  at  any  drug  store,  is  a  specific 
against  lice.  If  chicks  are  running  with  hens,  take  a  piece  twice 
the  size  of  a  pea  and  rub  under  the  hen's  wings,  and  along  on  her 
body  where  she  has  stripped  the  feathers  off  to  line  her  nest,  and 
to  bring  her  bare  skin  in  contact  v/ith  the  eggs  while  sitting;  also 
in  the  hollow  spot  just  above  the  vent,  and  in  the  feathers  below 
the  vent.  Do  this  just  at  night  and  the  chicks  and  hen  will  be 
free  from  lice  for  weeks.  Observe  if  there  are  little  bunches  of 
"nits"  at  the  base  of  the  feathers  below  the  vent;  if  so  lard  or 
grease  of  any  kind  will  kill  them.  Look  out  for  colds,  especially 
when  the  Fall  rains  come.  When  you  notice  that  the  chicks  have 
wet  nostrils,  put  in  their  drinking  water  permanganate  of  potash, 


114  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

enough  to  give  the  vv^ater  a  strong  wine  color ;  say  a  teaspoonful 
of  the  crystals  to  eight  or  10  quarts  of  water.  Keep  doing  it  until 
there  are  no  more  wet  nostrils.  The  above  two  recipes  are  worth 
a  hundred  dollars  to  anyone  going  into  the  poultry  business. 

I  do  not  think  it  wise  for  a  man  who  is  new  to  the  poultry 
business  to  attempt  to  raise  a  large  number  of  birds  the  first  year ; 
better  go  slow  and  learn  the  business  by  handling  only  100  or  200 
the  first  V/inter.  To  get  200  good  pullets,  at  least  500  chicks  must 
be  hatched,  and  it  will  only  be  with  good  luck  that  one  who  hatches 
500  chicks  will  find  himself  in  the  Fall  in  possession  of  200  good 
pullets.  The  poor  pullets  should  be  culled  out  as  well  as  the  sur- 
plus cockerels,  and  the  most  profitable  time  to  dispose  of  the  latter 
is  as  soon  as  they  weigh  ohe  and  a  half  to  two  pounds  each,  and 
earlier  Ihan  that  if  the  market  will  accept  them.  As  to  how 
many  fowls  one  should  keep  when  the  business  has  been  learned, 
that  will  depend  on  the  man.  Almy  with  the  help  of  a  boy  cares 
for  2,000  R.  I.  Reds,  Tillinghast  with  one  man  cares  for  3,000  White 
Leghorns ;  both  of  these  men  using  the  colony  system ;  that  is, 
detached  houses  holding  about  50  birds  each  scattered  over  many 
acres  of  ground.  Mr,  Tillinghast  uses  large  hoppers  holding  a 
week's  supply  of  v/heat  screenings  to  which  the  fowls  have  ac- 
cess at  all  times,  and  each  day  when  the  eggs  are  gathered  suffi- 
cient beef  scraps  for  a  day  are  put  where  the  fowls  can  get  them. 
It  is  not  a  pleasant  job  on  a  rainy  afternoon  to  drive  over  100 
acres  back  and  forth  among  the  houses  gathering  eggs,  etc.,  but 
this  colony  system  with  free  range  for  the  fowls  on  grassland  is 
undoubtedly  the  healthiest  for  the  fowls,  and  the  system  most 
likely  to  endure.  Some  men  can  keep  2,000  hens  successfully  in 
one  house,  but  I  would  not  advise  any  novice  to  attempt  it  until 
he  had  served  an  apprenticeship  to  some  one  who  was  successfully 
doing  it.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  caring  for  2,000  hens 
is  not  the  really  difficult  part;  where  the  expert  part  of  the  busi- 
ness comes  in,  is  in  raising  the  young  stock  to  renew  this  flock 
from  year  to  year.  The  agricultural  colleges  in  many  of  the  States 
give  a  short  course  of  five  or  six  weeks  in  poultry  keeping  both 
in  Winter  and  Summer,  which  it  is  very  advisable  for  one  who 
wishes  to  learn   the  business  to   attend. 

How  much  can  a  man  reasonably  expect  to  make  per  year, 
keeping  poultry?  is  a  question  frequently  asked.  Selling  eggs  and 
poultry  at  market  prices  only,  a  man  can  figure  safely  on  $1  a 
year  from  each  hen.  Mine  have  netted  me  from  $1.50  to  $2  per 
hen  for  years,  but  part  of  that  has  come  from  sale  of  eggs  for 
hatching  and  cockerels  for  breeders. 


A  CONNECTICUT  MAN'S  EXPERIENCE.  \1S 

The  man  who  has  other  farm  work  to  do,  who  raises  corn, 
potatoes,  oats  or  rye  or  barley  or  buckwheat  for  his  fowls,  who 
has  cows  to  milk,  and  other  "chores"  to  do,  will  find  500  head 
of  poultry  about  as  many  as  he  will  have  time  to  care  for,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  500  young  chicks  being  raised  to  replace  the  old  stock. 
I  have  three  yards,  each  containing  about  an  acre,  devoted  en- 
tirely to  poultry.  They  are  located  on  the  south  slope  of  a  hill. 
In  the  north  3^ard  are  nine  houses;  here  are  kept  the  two-year-old 
hens;  in  the  middle  yard  are  kept  the  yearlings;  in  the  south 
yard  the  young  chicks  and  growing  stock.  The  largest  part  of 
this  south  lot  is  planted  with  corn  for  shade  and  shelter  for  the 
chicks.  A  strip  about  30  feet  wide  by  300  feet  long  is  left  bare, 
and  on  this  strip  oats  are  thickly  scattered,  then  turned  under  by 
the  cultivator.  This  is  done  so  that  the  young  sprouts  will  make 
green  feed  for  the  chicks.  This  season  I  have  planted  on  this 
strip  at  different  times,  oats,  barley,  rye  and  buckwheat,  and  the 
chicks  have  not  allowed  anything  to  get  two  inches  high.  It  has 
been  replanted  six  times  and  the  chicks,  about  200  in  number,  have 
not  only  eaten  that  strip  bare,  but  have  eaten  all  the  lower  corn 
blades  off  for  quite  a  distance  into  the  corn.  Of  course  the  young 
chicks  are  not  allowed  in  the  corn  lot  until  the  corn  is  six  inches 
high ;  then  if  they  are  supplied  with  grass  or  other  green  food  for 
awhile  they  will  not  damage  the  corn  enough  to  amount  to  any- 
thing, and  in  a  couple  of  weeks  the  corn  is  too  large  to  be  hurt. 
From  present  indications  there  will  be  200  bushels  of  ears  on  this 
part  of  one  acre,  and  it  is  the  fourth  year  of  corn  on  the  same 
ground.  In  the  Fall  when  most  of  the  hens  are  molting  and  the 
egg  output  is  low,  the  two-year-old  hens  are  shipped  alive  to  the 
New  York  market,  their  houses  cleaned  out  and  the  year-old  hens 
put  in  the  north  yard,  and  the  middle  yard  houses  made  ready  to 
receive  the  laying  pullets,  v  Shipping  the  old  fowls  alive  to  the 
New  York  market  is  much  the  best  way  to  dispose  of  them,  as 
the  price  obtained  is  usually  just  as  much  per  pound  for  the  live 
birds  as  for  dressed  ones,  and  sometimes  it  is  more ;  the  reason 
being  the  large  Jewish  trade,  which  buys  all  their  fowls  alive.  Six 
substantial  shipping  coops  holding  from  12  to  20  fowls  each,  can 
be  bought  for  $5,  and  as  the  express  companies  return  the  empties 
for  10  or  15  cents,  they  may  be  used  many  times.  The  first  Sum- 
mer on  a  farm  is  likely  to  be  for  the  city  man  the  busiest  season 
he  ever  knew,  and  it  is  not  wise  to  undertake  to  do  too  much,  or 
too  many  things  with  the  result  that  none  of  them  is  well  done, 
and  he  must  expect  to  v/ork  harder  and  more  hours  than  he  ever 
did  before,  but  there  is  a  jo)-,  a  satisfaction,  a  happiness  in  iU 


CHAPTER  XL 
MARKETING  EGGS. 

The  easiest  money  to  be  made  in  the  poultry  business  is  in  mar- 
keting the  products.  A  successful  poultryman  must  be  a  good 
salesman.  The  extra  money  that  may  be  secured  by  selling  eggs 
to  a  special  trade  at  an  advanced  price  is  almost  clear  gain.  It 
should  be  25  to  30  per  cent  additional  above  the  profit  in  selling 
at  the  highest  v/holesale  price.  The  margin  v/ill  vary  from  one 
cent  per  dozen  in  small  towns  to  five  to  10  cents  per  dozen  in  large 
cities.  It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  secure  this  high-class  trade. 
Like  everything  else  worth  while,  it  requires  years  of  effort  and 
painstaking  care.  A  poultrjmian  must  grow  into  his  trade.  High 
price  is  simply  the  premium  paid  for  confidence  in  the  goods.  It  is 
a  just  rev/ard  for  a  good  reputation.  Any  neat  and  careful  poul- 
tryman, however,  should  find  no  difficulty  in  raising  his  price  two 
cents  per  dozen  above  the  highest  market  in  his  neighborhood. 
As  his  customers  become  educated  up  to  good  eggs  the  price  can 
be  increased.  The  first  essential  in  working  up  a  special  market 
is  the  ability  to  produce  and  deliver  the  goods.  To  do  this  three 
things  are  absolutely  necessary;  good  eggs,  an  attractive  package 
and  regular  delivery  every  week  in  the  year.  One  is  just  as 
important   as   the   other. 

GOOD  EGGS. — There  is  a  great  difference  in  eggs.  They 
must,  first  of  all,  be  new  laid,  that  is  to  say,  not  over  one  week 
old.  If  they  are  gathered  regularly  each  day  and  placed  in  a  cool, 
dry,  clean  room,  they  should  suit  the  requirements  of  the  most 
delicate  taste.  Daily  or  twice  a  w-eek  shipments  are  necessary 
with  a  private  family  trade,  and  would  greatly  increase  the  labor 
of  handling  and  keeping  of  accounts  as  well  as  multiplying  express 
charges.  On  the  whole  "eggs  is  eggs"  when  they  go  to  or  leave 
the  average  country  store.  A  good  farmer's  good  tgg  sells  for  no 
more  than  the  poor  farmer's  poor  egg  when  they  once  get  into  the 
class  of  ordinary  "store-gathered"  eggs,  because  they  are  in  bad 
company.  It  is  a  positive  injustice  to  the  hens  that  laid  the  eggs, 
to  the  man  who  grew  the  grain  to  produce  them,  and  to  the  one 
who  gathers  them  thus  to  sell  good  eggs  for  the  lowest  possible 
price.    The  element  of  uncertainty  as  to  just  what  is  covered  by 


MARKETING  EGGS.  117 

the  tgg  shell  exaggerates  the  ♦real  difference  in  quality  and  mag- 
nifies the  premium  paid  for  guaranteed  fresh  eggs.  In  other  words, 
people  are  v/illing  to  pay  an  extra  price  rather  than  take  any 
chances.  While  the  general  quality  of  market  eggs  has  consid- 
erably increased  in  some  respects  of  late  years,  due  to  the  more 
systematic  method  in  handling  of  eggs  by  large  dealers,  the  feature 
of  age,  which  has  much  to  do  with  quality,  remains  the  same. 

The  eggs  should  be  of  large  size.  The  customer  who  pays 
a  good  price  is  entitled  to  eggs  that  weigh  not  less  than  two 
ounces  each.  Eggs  under  two  ounces  should  be  sold  to  a  special 
customer  at  a  somewhat  reduced  rate.  Small  or  medium  eggs 
always  suff'er  by  contrast  with  large  ones,  but  when  placed  in  a 
crate  by  themselves  they  will  show  off  to  better  advantage,  and  as 
they  have  the  same  quality  of  freshness  and  neatness  as  the  other 
eggs,  they  should  command  a  premium  above  the  general  market. 
The  best  and  finest  grade  of  eggs  should  weigh  two  and  one- 
quarter  ounces  each.  Good  eggs  should  also  be  uniform  in  color, 
and  the  color  should  suit  the  fancy  of  the  customer.  The  New 
York  City  market  requires  a  pure  white  egg.  Boston  has  a  de- 
cided preference  for  a  dark  brown  egg.  Other  things  being  equal, 
a  difference  of  at  least  two  cents  per  dozen  will  be  paid  just  on 
account  of  color  in  these  and  other  markets.  It  is  a  common 
practice  now  to  assort  and  ship  eggs  according  to  the  color  require- 
ments of  the  respective  markets.  Uniformity  of  grade  counts  for 
as  much  in  the  selling  of  eggs  as  it  does  in  marketing  fruit.  One 
would  not  expect  to  ship  red,  green  and  russet  apples  of  large, 
medium  and  small  size  in  the  same  barrel.  Yet  it  is  a  rule,  not  an 
exception,  to  find  all  kinds  of  eggs,  big  ones  and  little  ones,  long 
ones  and  round  ones,  eggs  with  brown,  white,  speckled  or  cream- 
colored  shells  in  the  same  crate  when  they  leave  the  farm.  The 
very  fact  that  thc}^  are  mixed  in  colors  and  in  sizes,  brands  them 
as  "common  eggs"  in  the  eyes  of  the  purchaser.  They  give  the 
impression  of  not  having  come  from  any  particular  place  or  any 
special  breed,  but  from  anyvv^here  and  everywhere;  just  "picked 
up"  eggs.  This  is  a  serious  handicap.  In  order  to  produce  the 
highest  priced  eggs,  one  must  keep  purebred  fov/ls,  not  because 
their  eggs  are  any  better  to  eat,  but  because  they  are  better  to  look 
at.     Here  is  where  appearances  count. 

Cleanliness  is  a  necessity  in  selling  eggs.  A  dirty  egg  is  a 
disgrace.  It  may  be  fresh,  but  no  one  will  believe  it.  There 
are  many  degrees  of  cleanliness;  spotlessly  clean,  clean,  "tolerably 
cleari"  and  dirty.  Eggs  as  they  come  from  the  nest  are  usually 
"tolerably  clean."    They  are  never  spotlessly  clean  until  each   egg 


118  THE  B  U  SI  NESS  HEN. 

has  been  carefully  inspected  and  the  faintest  trace  of  stain  or  dirt 
removed.  Much  can  be  done  to  keep  eggs  from  becoming  soiled, 
which  will  save  a  large  amount  of  labor.  Dirty  hen  houses  and 
yards  cause  dirty  feet,  which  make  dirty  eggs.  Clean  nests  will 
help  to  keep  the  eggs  clean.  Bright  oat  straw  is  one  of  the  most 
desirable  nest  materials.  Sawdust  or  clover  hay  and  some  other 
materials  are  likely  to  stain  the  shells.  When  cleaning  eggs, 
both  dry  and  damp  cloths  should  be  at  hand.  Sapolio  or  baking 
soda  are  good  to  scour  off  a  stain.  A  little  sal  soda  in  water 
will  remove  dirt  more  quickly.  Vinegar  and  water  will  do  the 
same  thing.  One  should  use  as  little  water  as  possible.  Washed 
eggs  lose  their  natural  finish  and  will  not  keep  as  well.  Very  dirty 
eggs,  however,  should  be  put  in  water  for  a  few  minutes  to  soften 
the  material  but  not  long  enough  to  permit  the  water  to  be 
absorbed  by  the  shell.  Otherwise  the  color  and  flavor  of  the  eggs 
will  be  impaired.  All  eggs  should  be  perfectly  dry  when  placed 
in  the  crates,  and  covered  so  that  dust  cannot  settle  on  them. 
This  cleaning  operation  is  not  expensive  when  done  systematically. 
One  cent  per  dozen  for  grading,  cleaning  and  packing  eggs,  both 
for  market  and  for  halching,  is  a  liberal  allowance.  At  this  price, 
the  person  who  does  the  work  should  make  good  wages. 

The  quality  of  fancy  eggs  must  be  good  as  to  flavor,  firmness 
of  white  and  color  of  yolk.  Care  therefore  must  be  taken  in  the 
feeding  of  fowls  to  have  plenty  of  green  food  and  a  certain  amount 
of  corn,  both  of  which  give  to  the  dull  yolks  a  deep  yellow  color. 
Very  pale  yolks,  which  are  certain  to  follow  prolonged  feeding 
without  the  foods  mentioned,  are  likely  to  be  looked  upon  with 
suspicion  by  particular  customers.  It  is  true  that  excessive  feeding 
of  laying  hens  upon  foods  which  have  a  very  pungent  odor,  such 
as  onions,  will  affect  the  flavor  of  the  eggs.  Both  turnips  and 
cabbage,  however,  can  be  fed  with  perfect  safety  in  limited  quan- 
tities, especially  if  fowls  are  well  supplied  with  other  foods. 

THE  PACKAGE. — A  good  article  is  worthy  of  a  neat  package. 
Appearances  count  for  much  in  catching  the  eye  or  pleasing  the 
palate.  If  eggs  go  to  market  in  a  neatly  made,  well  varnished, 
carefully  stenciled  crate,  the  customer  has  reason  to  expect  that  the 
same  care  used  in  packing  the  eggs  has  been  exercised  in  pro- 
ducing and  gathering  them,  and  in  this  he  usually  is  not  mistaken. 
Good  serviceable  &gg  crates  can  be  made  with  very  slight  expense. 
Most  farmers  should  be  able  to  make  them.  It  is  the  most  profit- 
able kind  of  rainy  day  work.  The  crates  which  are  used  to  ship 
eggs  by  express  from  the  Cornell  University  poultry  plant  have  a 
capacity  of  multiples   of   three   dozen;   that   is,   three   dozen,   six 


MARKETING  EGGS.  119 

dozen,  nine  dozen,  12  dozen,  15  dozen  or  30  dozen.  Regular  com- 
mercial &gg  crates  are  purchased  for  five  to  10  cents  each  with 
fillers.  The  best  ends  are  used  to  form  the  ends  of  the  new 
crates  of  various  sizes.  Three-eighths-inch  Georgia  pine  ceiling 
is  used  for  sides  and  top,  which  is  nailed  with  two-inch  finishing 
nails.  The  bottoms  are  made  from  the  best  of  the  material  taken 
from  the  sides  of  the  tgg  crates.  Narrow  cleats  are  placed  on  the 
sides  for  handles,  and  upon  the  top  of  the  cover  to  make  it  solid, 
two  three-inch  strap  hinges  and  a  hasp  are  placed  on  the  cover. 
The  whole  box  is  then  sandpapered  if  necessary,  covered  with 
hard  oil  finish,  which  makes  a  much  neater  looking  package, 
easier  to  keep  clean  than  one  which  is  painted.  The  name  of  the 
farm  or  of  the  proprietor,  with  the  home  address  and  the  products 
shipped,  should  then  be  stenciled  on  the  top  of  the  package,  also 
upon  the  sides  where  room  will  permit.  The  Cornell  stencil  is  in 
two'  parts.  With  the  first  part  a  large  white  egg,  ten  inches  long, 
is  painted  upon  the  box.  When  this  is  dry  another  stencil  is  used 
to  print  the  words,  "Cornell  University,  College  of  Agriculture, 
Poultry  Products,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Quality  Guaranteed."  A  neat 
stencil  on  any  package  is  a  splendid  advertisement,  and  makes  the 
chances  of  loss  of  crates  in  transit  very  much  less.  As  a  finish- 
ing touch  we  purchase  little  brass  padlocks,  with  duplicate  keys. 
They  cost  12^  cents  each  and  they  are  money  makers,  not  so 
much  because  they  prevent  stealing  eggs,  but  because  the  wealthy 
customer  is  willing  to  pay  at  least  a  cent  a  dozen  just  for  the  sake 
of  having  his  neighbor  see  that  he  gets  eggs  direct  from  the  farm 
by  express  each  week  with  a  padlock  on  the  box.  Actual  experi- 
ence in  working  up  a  large  private  family  trade  in  and  about  New 
York  City  proves  that  the  "best  advertiser  is  a  pleased  customer." 
To  illustrate,  one  family  that  has  purchased  eggs  for  many  years, 
referred  a  friend  who  became  a  regular  customer,  who,  in  turn, 
wanted  the  assertion  sent  to  another  friend.  Another  string  of 
customers  was  started  by  a  wealthy  man  visiting  the  farm  and 
finding  a  person  packing  eggs  for  the  private  family  trade.  He 
asked  why  he  could  not  have  eggs  sent  to  him  also.  He  became 
one  of  the  best  customers  and  through  his  friendship  four  others 
were  secured.  Farmers  who  take  Summer  boarders,  or  those  v/ho 
sell  produce  to  Summer  hotels,  have  excellent  opportunities  for 
finding  city  customers  for  eggs.  The  private  family  trade,  how- 
ever, is  not  without  its  disadvantages.  One  of  these  is  that  there 
are  a  multitude  of  details  in  looking  after  a  large  number  of  com- 
paratively small  shipments  ranging  from  six  to  15  dozen.  This 
makes  a  good   deal   of  bookkeeping.     Families   are  likely  to  leave 


120  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

the  city  at  certain  times  during  the  year  which  necessarily  inter- 
rupts the  general  output  of  eggs.  However,  some  customers  con- 
tinue to  have  eggs  shipped  to  their  Summer  resort,  where,  if  neces- 
sary, they  are  willing  to  pay  double  express  charge.  The  most 
serious  difficulties  have  been  the  breakage  by  express  companies. 
Usually  they  make  good  the  loss  after  much  correspondence  and 
delay. 

REGULARITY  OF  SHIPMENT.— The  people  who  pay  high 
prices  must  have  their  eggs  on  time,  rain  or  shine.  They  usually 
want  the  same  number  per  week  the  year  round.  One's  capacity, 
therefore,  to  cater  to  this  trade  is  somewhat  measured  by  the  num- 
ber of  eggs  which  he  can  produce  during  the  months  of  greatest 
scarcity;  namely  October,  November  and  December.  It  will  be 
found,  however,  that  customers  are  very  obliging  and  stay  over 
these  periods  with  a  somewhat  diminished  supply.  In  order  to 
discourage  excessive  Qgg  eating  during  the  period  of  scarcity  the 
prices  should  be  made  according  to  the  law  of  supply  and  demand. 
While  these  prices  are  not  as  high,  perhaps,  as  some  are  getting, 
one  should  be  well  pleased  with  the  results,  but  should  be  always 
looking  for  higher  prices.  A  good  scale  of  prices  is  30  cents  per  dozen 
for  April,  May,  June  and  July;  40  cents  for  August  and  September; 
45  cents  for  October  and  November;  50  cents  for  December  and 
January;  40  cents  for  February  and  March.  The  customer,  in 
every  case,  should  pay  the  express  charges  and  return  the  empty 
box.  There  is  less  trouble  from  breakage  where  the  customer  who 
is  on  the  spot  is  personally  responsible  for  settling  with  the  ex- 
press company  for  damage.  These  prices,  however,  net  about 
seven  to  eight  cents  per  dozen  by  the  year  more  than  the  highest 
wholesale  market  quotation  for  nearby  fancy  white  eggs.  During 
the  Spring  months,  when  most  eggs  are  laid,  a  large  trade  in  eggs 
for  hatching  takes  care  of  most  of  the  surplus.  At  the  end  of  a 
hatching  season  the  Summer  hotel  trade  will  handle  any  surplus 
which  one  may  have  at  about  25  cents  per  dozen.  Whatever  the 
system  of  marketing,  the  problem  of  regularity  of  supply  through- 
out the  year  is  the  hardest  to  meet,  and  in  a  measure  it  remains 
unsolved.  With  the  best  of  care  one  cannot  expect  to  get  more 
than  10  to  15  eggs  per  day  per  100  hens  in  large  numbers  during  the 
months  of  October,  November  and  December,  and  not  over  20  to 
30  per  cent  from  early-hatched  pullets.  It  is  true  that  individual 
flocks  should  do  much  better  than  this  for  a  time,  but  if  there  are 
many  flocks,  some  of  the  others  will  not  be  laying  as  well. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

KILLING   AND    MARKETING   POULTRY. 

STICKING  AND  BLEEDING  IN  THE  MOUTH.— This 
method  may  be  used  for  either  dry  picking  or  scalding.  Hang  fov/l 
from  ceiling  by  cord,  loop  or  wire  attached  to  the  shanks,  or  hokl 
in  the  hands  while  sitting.  Seize  the  head  in  the  left  hand,  back 
of  the  head  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  palm  upward,  the  thumb  and 
hrst  finger  of  left  hand  pressing  firmly  back  of  the  eye,  but  not  on 
neck,  which  would  retard  bleeding.  With  the  right  hand  run  the 
blade  of  the  sticking  knife  into  the  throat  until  the  large  artery  on 
the  left  side  of  the  throat  is  severed.  Always  bleed  before  sticking. 
It  gives  better  drainage  of  blood  and  less  delay  before  plucking 
feathers.  Then  quickly  insert  the  blade  into  the  slit  of  -the  roof  of 
the  mouth  and  plunge  it  backward  into  the  brain  directly  back  of  the 
eye.  When  the  brain  is  hit  there  will  be  a  violent  muscular  con- 
vulsion or  quiver,  v/hich  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  characteristic 
squawk.  Give  the  knife  a  quick,  sharp  tv/ist  and  withdraw  it.  The 
feathers  will  then  loosen.  Pluck  a  fev/  from  the  breast,  careful  to 
note  whether  the  sticking  is  perfect,  then  begin  picking  rapidly.  If 
the  bleeding  has  not  been  complete  the  blood  will  follow  the  feathers 
and  cause  the  skin  to  be  spotted  and  red.  The  success  of  dry  pick- 
ing lies  in  getting  the  "right  bleed"  and  the  "right  stick."  If  the 
knife  plunges  too  low,  it  enters  the  bones  of  the  neck;  if  too  high, 
it  enters  the  hollow  space  in  the  head.  The  lobes  of  the  brain,  which 
are  located  directly  in  the  rear  of  the  eye,  must  be  hit  in  order  to 
produce  paralysis  of  the  nervous  system,  when  death  quickly  follows 
from  the  profuse  bleeding  while  the  fowl  is  still  (supposedly) 
unconscious. 

DRY  PICKING. — This  method  usually  requires  more  time  and 
skill  and  leaves  the  skin  in  a  more  natural  and  attractive  condition 
than  scalding.  Therefore,  fowls  should  bring,  and  usually  do  bring, 
a  higher  price.  The  feathers  are  left  in  a  better  condition  for  dry- 
ing. Rapid  work  is  oiily  acquired  through  long  practice.  Begin 
picking  immediately  after  the  sticking  has  produced  the  muscular 
contraction  of  the  skin,  v^hich  loosens  the  feathers.  Pick  with  both 
hands.  "Rough"  pick  breast  and  body  feathers  first,  then  wing  and 
t^il  feathers.     The  quill  feathers  of  wing  and  tail  should  be  pulled 


123  THE  BUSINESS  HEN: 

before  close  "ruffing"  is  completed  and  kept  separate  from  the  body- 
feathers.  As  far  as  possible,  the  white  and  colored  feathers  should 
be  kept  separate.  Avoid  pulling  too  many  feathers  at  one  time  to 
prevent  tearing  the  skin.  Give  a  rolling  motion  to  pull  a  full  hand- 
ful of  feathers,  as  you  would  remove  a  porous  plaster  from  yourself. 
Tearing  is  most  likely  to  occur  on  either  side  of  the  breast  and  on 
the  neck.  Rough  pick  the  entire  fowl  before  pin- feathering.  Dampen 
the  fingers  occasionally.  It  helps  to  make  the  feathers  stick  to  the 
hand.  Use  a  stub  knife  before  pin-feathering;  avoid  hard  rubbing, 
it  is  liable  to  loosen  and  scarf  skin;  avoid  rough  handling;  tender 
fowls  are  easily  injured;  keep  tools,  clothes,  tables  and  even/thing 
that  comes  in  contact  with  the  fowl  scrupulously  clean  to  prevent 
infection  and  thus  improve  the  keeping  quality.  Throw  fowl,  when 
finished,  into  v/ater  about  60  degrees  temperature  for  about  one  hour 
to  remove  animal  heat;  then  place  in  ice  water  or  cracked  ice  to 
chill;  cold,  dry  air  is  vastly  to  be  preferred  for  cooling  and  chilhng. 
Poultry  dressed  by  any  method  looks  better  and  keeps  longer  if  it 
does  not  touch  water.  When  animal  heat  is  removed,  sponge  the 
carcass  clean,  fold  wings  on  back,  tie  feet  together  and  hang  in  a 
cool  room  to  dry.  Discoloration  is  likely  to  occur,  especially  about 
the  vent,  if  carcass  is  allowed  to  remain  long  without  removing  ani- 
mal heat.  Quick  picking  means  quick  thinking.  It  is  the  mind 
that  pushes  the  fingers.  "Say  nothing  and  keep  picking"  is  a  good 
motto  for  the  picking  room.  Ease  of  picking  depends  upon  season, 
age  and  breed.  It  costs  three,  four  or  five  cents  for  killing  and  dry 
picking  fowls.  One  hundred  to  200  fowls  are  picked  a  day  by  an 
expert  picker. 

SCALDING. — This  is  the  most  rapid  way  of  removing  the 
feathers  where  the  methods  are  right  and  the  picking  room  con- 
veniently arranged.  There  is  slightly  less  loss  in  dressed  weight 
by  the  scalding  process  than  by  dry  picking,  due  to  the  absorption 
of  a  small  amount  of  water  by  the  body  in  the  plumping  process. 
The  skin  shows  the  fat  more  prominently  because  the  hot  plunge 
brings  the  fat  to  the  surface,  and  the  chilling  process  which  follows, 
sets  it  at  the  surface,  thus  making  the  fowl  look  in  better  condition 
of  fatness.  The  danger  in  the  scalding  method  lies  in  not  getting 
the  water  the  correct  temperature  or  leaving  the  body  submerged 
too  long.  If  too  hot,  the  skin  is  cooked  and  the  thin  scarf  skin 
peels  off,  which  causes  the  flesh  to  look  bruised.  If  not  enough 
heat  is  applied,  the  feathers  stick  and,  as  a  result,  the  skin  is  liable 
to  become  torn.  The  temperature  of  the  water  should  be  about  180 
to  190  degrees.  Immerse  the  entire  body  except  the  head^  its  append- 
ages and  the  shanks.    These  parts  change  color  and  the  skin  peels  if 


KILLING  AND  MARKETING  POULTRY,  itt 

scalded.  Move  the  body  forward  from  head  to  tail  through  the  water 
and  withdraw  frequently  to  prevent  the  water  penetrating  through 
the  feathers  to  the  s-kin.  The  feathers  rather  than  the  skin  should 
be  scalded.  When  the  skin  contracts  see  that  the  feathers  stand 
out  from  the  body.  Remove  from  the  water  and  pick  rapidly,  but 
carefully,  and  avoid  rubbing.  Remove  animal  heat  in  water  at  60 
degrees.  Then  submerge  in  ice  water  or  cracked  ice.  To  plump 
fowls,  plunge  an  instant  in  water  160  to  170  degrees.  This  shrinks 
the  skin,  which  gives  a  plumper  appearance  and  brings  fat  to  sur- 
face. If  possible,  place  in  cold,  dry  air  to  chill.  Sew  up  all  tears. 
Singe  with  alcohol  flame  to  remove  hairs. 

SHAPING. — This  is  done  to  keep  the  body  in  compact  and 
attractive  form.  All  such  special  preparations  produce  a  good 
impression  on  a  prospective  purchaser  who  believes,  and  justly,  that 
a  poultryman  who  would  take  so  much  pains  to  prepare  poultry 
attractively  would  be  equally  particular  to  produce  good  quality  by 
proper  feeding  and  breeding. 

FASTING.— All  poultry  intended  for  a  slaughter  should  be 
fasted  for  24  hours  before  killing.  This  is  required  by  law  in  some 
States.  Water  should  always  be  supplied  during  the  fasting  period. 
By  this  treatment  the  crop  and  intestines  are  emptied,  which  helps 
to  prevent  decomposition  of  food  materials  within  the  body  and 
therefore  adds  to  the  keeping  quality  and  also  avoids  danger  of 
tainted  flesh,  which  might  result  if  poultry  were  not  drawn  at  time 
of  killing. 

GRADING. — It  is  important  to  select  and  pack  poultry  in  such 
manner  that  it  will  be  most  attractive  to  the  purchaser,  and  best 
meet  the  demands  of  a  special  trade.  It  pays  to  carefully  grade  all 
stock  and  sell  it  graded  by  itself.  Poor  quality  stock  suffers  by 
contrast  with  medium  or  good  quality.  Each  grade  should  be  uni- 
form in  size,  shape,  color  of  skin  and  shanks,  age  and  quality  of 
fatness. 

THE  PACKAGE. — We  should  aim  so  to  prepare  fowls  in  pack- 
ages for  shipment  that  they  will  be  most  attractive  to  the  pur- 
chaser, and  arrive  in  the  best  possible  condition.  The  package  fre- 
quently sells  the  product.  Indicate  clearly  the  contents  of  the 
package  as  to  kind  of  poultry,  number,  weight  and  quality.  It 
should  also  bear  the  brand  of  the  shipper  as  a  guarantee  of  good 
faith.  Boxes  should  be  made  to  ship  different  sizes  of  fowls  as  fol- 
lows :  Each  box  or  barrel  should  be  lined  with  paper  before  pack- 
ing. This  helps  to  prevent  evaporation  or  injury  to  the  product 
from  rough  handling.  Special  parchment  paper  should  be  purchased 
for  the  purpose.    Clean  rye  or  wheat  straw  may  be  used  to  advantage 


iU  THE  BUSINESS  BEN. 

in  large  boxes  or  barrels.  For  packing  boxes  for  cold  storage  or 
Winter  shipment,  the  fowls  should  be  laid  in  one  or  two  tiers. 
For  the  latter,  back  down,  head  toward  the  center  and  folded  under 
the  body,  legs  pressed  down  and  tied  to  the  body.  This  helps  to 
protect  the  breast  from  injury.  In  warm  weather,  make  a  layer  of 
cracked  ice,  and  place  second  layer  of  chickens,  reversing  the  order 
so  that  the  backs  of  the  fowls  shall  be  uppermost,  rumps  to  the  center. 
PACKING  IN  BARRELS.— Make  hole  for  drainage,  place  layer 
of  ice,  lay  fowls  b?xks  up,  feet  toward  middle,  cover  with  ice,  fill 
in  center  with  cracked  ice,  and  cover  barrel  with  burlap.  This  pro- 
tects the  breast  and  keeps  the  package  coldest  on  outside.  The  vents 
of  the  fowls  will  thus  be  covered  with  ice  and  the  iced  water  will 
drain  toward  outside  of  barrel. 

A  FEW  SELLING  NOTES. 

The  first  requisite  in  shipping  poultry  to  a  large  market  is  to 
have  something  worth  selling,  and  the  next  is  to  knov/  a  commission 
man  who  is  worthy  of  selling  it.  Such  a  man  is  found  through 
experience,  either  one's  own  or  that  of  a  neighbor,  and,  when  found, 
he  is  worth  sticking  to.  He  v/ill  appreciate  this,  and  in  10  years 
more  money  will  have  been  made  than  by  scattering  the  shipments 
about. 

In  Nev/  York  City  and  other  sections  having  a  considerable 
Hebrew  population,  there  is  a  steady  demand  for  live  poultry,  which 
must  be  slaughtered  under  the  supervision  of  their  official  butchers. 
This  trade  is  heaviest  just  before  the  Jewish  holidays,  chief  of  which 
are  Hebrew  New  Year,  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  Feast  of  Laws  and 
the  Passover,  the  last  named  occurring  In  Spring.  These  feasts  are 
movable,  and  the  exact  date  for  any  year  can  be  learned  from  deal- 
ers In  live  poultry.  Special  care  should  be  taken  not  to  crowd  coops 
of  live  poultry,  as  otherwise  the  loss  from  trampling  and  suffocation 
may  be  heavy. 

The  farmer  is  usually  most  Interested  in  the  Fall  and  Winter 
poultry  markets.  He  has  something  to  sell  at  Thanksgiving  time,  and 
disposes  of  the  remainder  for  later  holiday  trade.  At  Thanksgiving 
the  weather  is  usually  cool  enough  to  make  dry  packing  safe.  If 
more  than  a  very  small  quantity  Is  sent,  it  is  better  to  sort  the  poul- 
try, putting  hen  and  tom  turkeys  in  separate  packages,  and  culls  In 
another.  Barrels  or  boxes  of  moderate  size  may  be  used.  Very 
heavy  packages  are  more  likely  to  be  smashed  In  handling. 

In  small  towns,  where  the  receiver  sells  direct  to  the  consumer, 
receipts  as  late  as  the  day  before  a  holiday  may  be  handled  to  advan- 
tage, but  poultry  for  Nev/  York  Thanksgiving  trade  should  be  on 


KILLING  AND  MARKETING  POULTRY.  125 

hand  not  later  than  Monday  of  that  week,  as  the  retailers  begin  stock- 
ing up  then  if  the  weather  is  favorable.  Unless  there  is  a  scarcity, 
late  shipments  are  likely  to  meet  a  slack  trade. 

Most  cities  have  laws  regarding  the  handling  of  poultry,  whether 
it  should  be  drawn  or  not,  etc.,  and  the  shipper  should  learn  from  his 
receiver  what  the  law  and  custom  of  his  market  demands.  Most 
poultry  sent  to  New  York  is  undrawn,  with  head  and  feet  on.  The 
crop  must  be  removed  unless  empty,  but  all  poultry  should  be  kept 
without  food  for  several  hours  before  killing. 

Cold  storage  is  the  balance  wheel  of  the  egg  and  poultry  trade, 
keeping  it  going  at  a  comparatively  even  gait  the  year  around,  pre- 
venting the  scarcity  which  causes  prohibitive  prices  to  all  but  the 
wealthy,  and  the  glutted  market,  with  figures  below  cost  of  produc- 
tion. The  range  of  prices  for  a  year  will  still  show  very  high  figures, 
such  as  60  cents  a  dozen  for  new-laid  eggs  and  35  cents  for  fresh- 
killed  poultry,  yet  there  is  no  time  when  both  eggs  and  poultry  from 
storage,  not  fresh,  but  palatable  and  reasonably  wholesome,  may  not 
be  had  at  prices  within  reach  of  almost  anyone.  The  scope  of 
refrigeration  has  been  much  enlarged  by  dry  air  processes,  which 
have  made  it  possible  to  handle  products  that  get  musty  under  the 
dampness  of  ordinary  ice  storage.  There  are  still  many  losses  from 
improper  handling,  but  good  eggs  properly  stored  may  be  kept  for  a 
full  year. 

As  abuses  have  sprung  up  in  the  cold  storage  business,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  strict  legislation  regarding  it  is  needed.  No  tainted  or 
otherwise  unwholesome  product,  no  matter  how  little  damaged, 
should  be  stored.  Cold  may  arrest  the  decay,  but  investigation  has 
shown  that  chemical  changes  dangerous  to  health  frequently  take 
place.  Another  abuse  is  the  secret  storage  of  large  quantities  of 
foodstuffs,  with  the  resulting  monopoly  and  restraint  of  trade.  The 
law  should  compel  a  detailed  report  of  the  quantity  of  such  products 
held  in  storage.  This  would  put  the  market  on  the  basis  of  supply 
and  demand,  instead  of  the  present  speculative  basis,  where  larg-e 
quantities  of  foods  are  put  away  and  held  secretly  until,  by  the  con- 
stantly repeated  talk  of  scarcity,  prices  are  materially  advanced  and 
the  goods  doled  out  just  fast  enough  to  maintain  these  high  prices. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

A  WOMAN'S  HENS. 

It  is  said  that  a  small  army  of  women  having  an  itching  to 
engage  in  the  poultry  business  are  seeking  for  light  on  the  subject. 
Some  gleanings  from  the  experience  of  a  woman  may  help  these 
women  to  recognize  their  fitness  or  unfitness  for  the  work. 

The  Arabs  have  a  saying,  "All  sunshine  makes  the  desert."  If 
there  were  no  clouds  in  the  poultry  keeper's  sky  the  bottom  would 
fall  out  of  the  poultry  business.  It  is  because  profitable  poultry 
keeping  is  difficult  that  the  comparatively  few  who  have  the  ability 
to  overcom.e  these  difficulties  are  successful.  A  few  chickens  on  a 
farm  will  get  much  of  their  living  from  what  would  otherwise  go 
to  waste.  Increase  in  numbers  requires  skill  in  management,  if 
there  is  to  be  any  profit.  It  is  idle  to  suppose  that  this  skill  will 
come  without  effort  or  that  everyone  miaking  the  effort  will  suc- 
ceed in  acquiring  it. 

Skill  is  "ability  to  perceive  and  perform."  It  all  depends  on 
the  woman.  She  must  perceive  the  business  side,  the  hen  side,  her 
own  side.  Particularly  must  she  see  herself  as  she  is.  Has  she 
health,  perseverance,  grit,  gumption?  No  woman  not  in  fair  health 
should  undertake  the  entire  charge  of  poultry.  The  frequent  change 
from  indoor  to  outdoor  dress  is  tiring  and  takes  time.  There  is 
temptation  to  go  out  just  as  she  is.  There  is  no  surer  foe  to  health 
than  draggled  skirts  and  wet  feet  and  ankles.  Rubber  boots,  leggings 
and  bloomers  are  necessities.  Fortunate  is  she,  who,  in  stress  of 
weather,  can  say  beseechingly  to  some  trousered  creature,  "Go," 
and  he  goeth. 

Has  she  perseverance?  Poultry  keeping  means  work  every  day. 
Hens  are  like  sheep,  much  attached  to  the  person  tending  them  and 
distrustful  of  strangers.  For  this  reason  and  because  no  one  not 
constantly  tending  them  can  possibly  know  just  what  to  do  during 
the  breeding  season,  for  best  results  one  must  be  constantly  on 
the  job. 

Has  she  grit?  It  takes  grit  to  do  the  dirty  work.  Cleaning 
droppings  board,  coops  and  brooders  may  be  disagreeable,  but  it  is 
not  the  dirtiest  work;  the  dust  boxes  are  responsible  for  that,  An 
energetic  hen,  she  is  the  kind  to  have,  can  kick  up  a  deal  of  dust. 


A  WOMAN'S  HENS.  127 

Multiply  her  by  one  or  two  hundred.  If  she  is  to  have  the  dust,  it 
must  be  got  in  and  after  she  has  scattered  it  to  the  remotest  corner 
of  the  premises  it  must  be  got  out.  A  vacuum  cleaner,  adapted  to 
this  work,  v/ill  be  a  boon.  Whitewashing  sounds  clean.  Then  there 
is  that  interesting  job  applying  some  sort  of  dope  for  the  extermina- 
tion of  vermin ;  that  is,  you  hope  it  is  extermination,  but  it  isn't,  and 
you  do  it  again  and  again. 

Has  she  gumption?  Great  is  gumption!  It  is  both  chart  and 
compass  on  an  unsailed  sea. 

THE  BUSINESS  SIDE.— Too  little  attention  is  paid  to  the 
business  side  of  rural  life.  It  is  not  a  condition  peculiar  to  poultry 
keeping.  One  is  told  ad  infinitum,  that  the  poultry  house  must  not 
be  damp ;  that  the  hens  must  have  grit,  but  it  is  like  hunting  for  a 
pearl  among  oysters  to  find  a  practical  business  suggestion.  Let  the 
beginner  decide  whether  to  cater  to  local  trade,  sell  to  the  shipper 
or  do  a  possible  shipping  business.  Having  decided  this  point,  study 
the  conditions  to  be  met.  What  does  the  market  call  for  that  is 
most  profitable  to  produce?  For  example,  the  New  York  market 
quotes  fancy  white  eggs  at  a  premiium,  but  it  does  not  follow  that 
white  eggs  are  most  profitable  to  produce.  The  white  egg  layer  is 
fastidious.  Unless  she  has  things  quite  to  her  liking  she  will  not 
fill  the  egg  basket  when  prices  are  soaring.  Then,  again,  the  season 
of  highest  prices  may  not  be  the  season  of  greatest  profit.  If  plump, 
yellow-skinned,  3^ellow-fleshed  broilers  and  roasters  are  w^anted,  it  is 
folly  to  produce  thin,  white-fleshed,  dingy  skinned  birds.  It  is  a 
mistake  to  sell  raw-boned  fov/ls.  It  costs  more  to  produce  frame 
than  it  does  to  produce  flesh.  Why  let  the  middleman  add  the  cheap 
flesh  to  your  expensive  frame  and  reap  more  profit  from  two  to 
four  wrecks'  feeding  than  you  do  from  two  to  four  months  or  longer, 
or  why  sell  inferior  stuff  at  an  inferior  price.  It  is  an  advantage  to 
keep  enough  laying  stock  to  fill  a  30-dozen  tgg  crate  and  have  the 
eggs  reasonably  fresh.  The  city  market  quotes  hennery  eggs  at  a 
premium  over  gathered  eggs.  Why  not  gather  that  premium  in  for 
3'ourself.  Once  you  have  found  a  reliable  dealer,  stick  to  him  and 
give  him  every  reason  to  stick  to  you. 

While  on  the  subject  of  selling,  just  a  word  about  eggs  for 
hatching  and  breeding  stock.  There  are  many  persons  who  want  to 
get  purebred  stock  for  what  the  butcher  would  pay  for  them,  and 
eggs  from  purebred  stock  for  the  market  price  of  eggs  by  the  crate. 
To  many,  visions  of  getting  rich  quick  from  the  sale  of  eggs  and 
stock  will  prove  a  mirage.  Business  has  a  buying,  as  v/ell  as  a  sell- 
ing side.  Buy  in  large  quantities  whenever  practicable.  Buy  in  time. 
,Do  not  get  out  of  supplies.     Especially  is  this  to  be  guarded  against 


128  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

in  care  of  little  chickens;  some  are  dainty  in  their  tastes,  and  will 
eat  only  certain  kinds  of  food.  If  this  is  withheld  they  will  starve 
with  plenty  of  other  food  before  them.  Another  example  of  buying 
right :  Learn  when  eggs  are  likely  to  be  cheapest  and  have  your 
water  glass  ready.  Do  not  v^^ait  until  it  is  time  to  use  it,  then  find 
your  dealer  hasn't  it  in  stock.  Find  out  whether  he  is  charging  you 
two  prices ;  that  is,  twice  the  profit  he  should  have ;  two  to  one,  he  is. 
Lock  around  and  save  that  profit  for  yourself.  To  do  so,  perhaps 
you  will  have  to  send  away  for  it.  Then  when  the  howl  is  raised, 
"Home  trade  is  what  our  town  needs,"  be  ready  with  your  answer, 
"Exactly,  what  the  town  needs,  not  what  the  country  needs,"  The 
town  has  fattened  on  the  country  long  enougli. 

THE  HEN  SIDE;  HER  BREEDING.— Shall  she  be  purebred? 
Better  a  good  mongrel,  or  shall  we  say,  grade,  than  a  purebred  with 
all  the  stamina  and  get-up-and-dust  bred  out  of  her.  A  hen's  a  hen, 
however  bred.  Buy  performance,  not  pedigree,  and  breed  the  same 
way.  What  to  feed,  hov/  m.uch  to  feed,  where  and  how  and  why? 
These  are  questions  to  turn  the  hair  white,  at  least,  the  hair  will  be 
white  before  all  are  answered  satisfactorily.  There  are  many  com- 
binations of  various  foodstuffs  that  give  good  results.  Just  which 
particular  combination  will  suit  each  peculiar  circumstance  is  some- 
thing no  m.ortal  can  tell.  It  seems  certain  the  growing  chick,  the 
laying  hen,  the  fleshening  fowl,  need  differing  treatment.  The  grow- 
ing chick  needs  to  roam,  the  laying  hen  to  exercise,  the  fleshening 
fowl  to  be  confined.  Frame  and  flesh  and  eggs  are  built  up  by  a 
diff'erently  balanced  ration,  but  to  enter  into  this  subject  compre- 
hensively is  beyond  the  limits  of  this  chapter. 

HEN  HOUSING.— The  ideal  hoase  has  yet  to  be  built.  Let  the 
novice  be  prepared  to  be  dissatisfied.  When  that  ideal  house  is  built 
the  hens,  will  roost  high  in  it,  and  the  nest  boxes  v/ill  not  be  little 
stuffy  ones,  built  in  a  row  and  stuck  in  under  the  droppings  boarda, 
or  in  some  other  low-down  place.  Most  beginners  will  have  to  make- 
shift with  what  they  have  in  the  house  line,  and  here  is  where  the 
average  woman  will  beat  the  average  man.  This  is  how  the  small 
boy  puts  it : 

"At  home  it  seems  to  be  the  rule 
Pa  never  has  the  proper  tool, 
Or  knack  to  fix  things.     For  the  stunt 
That  stumps  iija,  though,  you'll  have  to  hunt. 
So  when   my  things  get  out  of  fix, 
Do  I   ask   pa   to   mend   'em?     Nisi 
But  ma  just  grabs  what's  near  at  hand 
And  togs  things  up  to  beat  the  baud." 

In  like  manner  the  hen  house  can  be  togged  up ;  cloth  windows 
out  of  sugar  sacks,  cracks  pasted  up  with  strong  paper;  curtains  tQ 


A  WOMAN'S  HENS.  129 

enclose  the  roosts,  of  gunny  sacks,  covered  with  newspapers  or  paper 
flour  sacks  sewed  on  with  darning  needle  and  twine.  Any  woman 
who  can  handle  a  saw  and  drive  a  nail  can  make  food  hoppers.  It 
isn't  necessary  to  have  expensive  drinking  fountains ;  a  flat  gallon 
butter  jar,  costing  eight  cents,  answers  admirably.  When  there  are 
little  chicks  about,  likely  to  drown,  a  stone  in  the  middle  provides 
a  means  of  escape.  For  wee  chicks  a  granite  pie  dish  with  a  stone 
to  weight  it  and  keep  the  water  from  being  soiled,  answers  every 
purpose.  No  more  50-cent  drinking  fountains,  thank  you !  If  one 
cannot  have  a  separate  breeding  pen,  and  it  is  possible  to  buy  eggs 
for  hatching  from  properly  mated  birds,  it  is  well  to  do  so  and  dis- 
pense with  chanticleer  in  your  own  flock.  Do  this  by  all  means,  as 
soon  as  the  hatching  season  is  over;  then  if  the  hens  are  too  cun- 
ning for  you,  they  will  not  be  coming  off  a  stolen  nest  with  a  batch 
of  late  hatched  chicks,  and  the  infertile  eggs  will  keep  better  during 
the  hot  weather.  The  hen  is  the  best  mother,  whether  she  or  the 
incubator  does  the  hatching.  A  hen  and  a  brooder  makes  a  combina- 
tion that  suits  the  writer.  As  far  as  known,  no  one  has  invented  an 
automatic  scratching  attachment  to  the  brooder,  and  a  chick  to  thrive 
its  best  needs  to  be  scratched  for. 

The  writer  does  some  scratching  on  her  own  account;  that  is,  she 
digs  in  the  garden  and  invites  the  chickens  to  a  bug,  worm  and  weed- 
seed  festival.  The  invitation  is  accepted  with  alacrity,  and  the 
guests  do  ample  justice  to  the  viands.  It  is  an  open  question  as  to 
which  receives  the  greater  benefit,  chickens  or  garden.  Certain  it  is, 
the  gardener  hen  woman  receives  two  benefits,  aye,  three,  for  dig- 
ging in  a  garden  comes  near  to  being  a  panacea  for  the  ills  of  the 
flesh,  and  of  the  spirit.  This  garden  includes  mangles  and  cabbage 
for  the  hens.  A  large  patch  of  sweet  corn  is  planted,  and  the  chickens 
allowed  to  harvest  what  is  not  used  for  the  table.  No  weeds  worth 
mentioning  grow  in  that  corn ;  the  chickens  wallow  in  the  mellow 
earth  in  the  shade  they  need  so  much  during  the  hot  weather.  The 
corn  grows  amazingly  and  so  do  the  chickens.  It  is  such  a  happy 
combination  that  more  corn  and  more  chickens  are  planned  for  next 
year.  The  brooders  are  set  in  the  midst  of  this  garden.  "Horrors !" 
did  some  one  say?  and  in  cleaning  them  the  droopings  are  put  on  the 
corn.  Poultry  netting  is  put  around  such  things,  as  the  chickens 
might  damage,  the  strawberries  in  fruiting  season  and  tomatoes  and 
melons  later.  Part  of  this  garden,  which  is  large,  is  put  to  rye  in  the 
Fall  and  to  clover  in  the  Spring,  and  the  chickens  are  in  clover  sure 
enough.  The  rye  gives  them  shade  before  the  corn  is  large  enough. 
The  rye  is  cut  for  hay  in  time  to  give  the  clover  a  good  chance  to 
grow. 


130  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

A  good-sized  cart  is  a  great  convenience.  The  one  the  writer 
uses  has  two  wheels,  28  inches  in  diameter.  The  box  is  37  inches 
long,  20  wide  and  8  inches  depth.  In  this  the  droppings  in  boxes  are 
wheeled  out  and  dust  brought  in.  It  can  be  loaded  up  with  feed, 
shells,  charcoal,  grit,  etc.  Alas !  it  v/ill  not  carry  water,  but  perhaps 
it  will  if  a  discarded  milkcan  can  be  found.  Much  fun  is  made  of 
this  little  red  wagon,  but  the  owner  laughingly  declares  she  would 
rather  have  it  than  an  automobile.  Its  usefulness  is  not  confined  to 
the  poultry  department;  it  carries  the  clothes  basket,  is  indispensable 
in  gardening;  in  short  its  uses  are  legion,  and  make  it  possible  for 
one  woman  to  accomplish  many  things.  A  mill  to  grind  feed  to 
suit  the  varying  needs  of  the  flock  and  the  household  is  another 
helpful  implement,  sometimes  on  a  hot  day  it  takes  something  of 
faith  and  hope  as  well  as  a  strong  right  arm  to  make  the  wheels  go 
'round.  Some  day  the  mill  will  be  changed  from  hand  to  motor 
power.  This  hoping  for  better  things  is  what  gives  zest  to  the 
business,  and  enables  one  to  resist  the  hard  knocks  that  are  reason- 
ably sure  to  come. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 
THE    POULTRY    "SYSTEMS"    DISCUSSED. 

Since  the  last  edition  of  "The  Business  Hen"  was  published 
there  have  appeared  on  the  market  numerous  "systems"  and  secret 
methods  for  conducting  the  poultry  business.  These  systems,  meth- 
ods and  secrets  are  practically  all  unpatented  and  unpatentable. 
The  fact  that  there  have  been  sold  hundreds  of  thousands  of  these 
pamphlets  and  books  shows  that  there  is  a  great  demand  for  poultry 
information,  but  if  each  person  who  buys  a  book  of  secrets,  sys- 
tems or  methods  could  produce  the  results  claimed  by  the  different 
authors  to  be  "easily  obtained"  the  market  for  poultry  and  eggs 
would  be  flooded,  not  only  in  the  United  States  but  also  in  foreign 
countries ;  and  the  price  of  eggs  and  market  poultry  would  surely 
drop  at  least  50  per  cent.  The  truth  is,  however,  that  the  price  of 
eggs  and  market  poultry  has  not  been  reduced  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, it  is  gradually  going  higher,  and  there  are  no  evident  forces 
in  the  field  at  the  present  time  that  can  or  will  produce  any  great 
change  in  the  market  prospects  for  the  future.  These  facts  prove 
without  any  question  that  the  numerous  claims  of  the  different 
authors  that  they  will  or  have  revolutionized  the  poultry  business, 
and  that  by  following  their  particular  methods  and  instructions, 
each  hen  can  be  made  to  produce  from  150  to  280  eggs  per  year, 
and  return  a  net  profit  to  her  owner  of  from  $6.41  to  $120  are 
extravagant  claims  which  should  not  be  taken  seriously.  Experi- 
enced poultrymen  occasionally  find  hints  or  suggestions  in  these 
works  which  may  be  profitably  applied  to  any  system  of  poultry 
keeping;  but  amateurs  should  be  careful  not  to  expect  too  much 
from  following  the  advice  given. 

There  is  one  great  principle  taught  by  all  of  these  different 
"systems,"  and  that  is  it  pays  to  be  systematic  in  our  work  with 
poultry,  and  remember  the  truth  of  the  old  saying  that  "a  thing 
worth  doing  at  all  is  worth  doing  well."  Successful  poultrymen 
understand  this  rule,  and  amateurs  must  learn  it  before  any  great 
degree  of  success  can  be  attained.  Fowls  acquire  a  habit  and  cling 
to  it.  Any  attempt  to  change  these  habits  always  disturbs  the 
flock  and  reduces  production  for  a  time,  so  there  should  be  a  time 
for   all   work,   and   everything  done   at   its   proper  time   each   day. 


132  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

Poultry  keeping  is  a  science,  and  must  be  learned  at  least  partly 
by  experience  before  sure  results  can  be  expected  by  the  average 
man  or  woman,  so  it  is  plainly  evident  that  the  numerous  claims 
by  poultry  writers  and  authors  that  big  money  can  be  easily  made 
from  a  flock  of  fowls  by  any  inexperienced  person  in  any  location 
is  misleading,  to  say  the  least.  It  has  been  said  that  there  is  only 
one  way  to  do  anything  and  that  is  the  right  way;  but  the  fact 
that  several  different  methods  are  being  used  in  conducting  the 
poultry  business,  and  that  they  are  equally  successful  proves  that 
a  person  may  adopt  any  good  system  and  that  the  chances  for 
success  depend,  not  so  much  upon  which  system  is  adopted,  as 
how  much  skill,  energy  and  perserverance  are  used  in  its  appli- 
cation. 

In  selecting  a  system,  the  novice  or  amateur  poultryman  or 
woman  should  take  into  consideration  these  facts :  That  each  one 
was  written  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  making  money — not  for 
the  person  who  bought  the  system,  but  for  the  person  or  persons 
who  wrote  the  works  and  put  them  on  the  market.  Then,  too,  the 
authors  of  some  systems  are  also  the  manufacturers  of  a  line  of 
poultry  supplies  without  which  it  would  appear  their  systems  could 
not  be  successfully  applied,  so  the  system  becomes  practically  an 
advertisement  paid  for  by  the  purchaser  instead  of  the   seller. 

One  of  the  first,  most  valuable  and  most  closely  guarded 
secrets  is  how  to  tell  the  laying  hen  without  trap-nests.  This  secret 
is  sold  by  the  different  authors  at  from  $i  to  $io  each.  It  has  also 
been  sold  in  a  book  of  poultry  secrets  for  25  cents.  It  has  been 
known  by  some  old  poultrymen  for  over  30  years,  so  it  can  truth- 
fully be  called  a  secret  no  longer.  It  consists  simply  of  taking  the 
hen  in  the  left  hand  with  the  head  at  the  left  or  under  the  left  arm. 
Then  with  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  imbedded  in  the  fluff  the 
ends  of  the  pelvic  bones  between  which  the  egg  passes  can  be 
plainly  felt.  The  condition  of  these  bones  and  their  distance  apart 
determines  the  value  of  the  bird.  The  ends  of  three  fingers  can 
easily  be  placed  between  the  bones  of  a  good  layer  in  laying  condi- 
tion, while,  if  there  is  only  room  for  two  fingers,  the  bird  is  just  an 
average  layer.  If  there  is  room  for  but  one  finger,  the  bird  is  not 
laying,  and  if  she  does  not  get  into  laying  condition  in  at  least 
four  to  six  weeks  should  be  sold  for  market.  Cocks  and  cockerels 
are  tested  in  the  same  way,  and  those  showing  the  greatest  space 
between  the  ends  of  the  pelvic  bones  should  be  kept  for  breeding 
layers,  provided  they  are  good  birds  otherwise.  This  method  saves 
the  labor  involved  i-n  trap-nesting  layers,  as  it  takes  but  a  few 
minutes  to  test  100  hens.    Then,  too,  as  it  is  impossible  to  trap-nest 


THE  POULTRY  SYSTEMS  DISCUSSED.  133 

the  males,  much  time  and  labor  is  lost  each  year  by  breeding  from 
inferior  birds,  unless  this  system  is  applied.  While  it  is  true  that 
accurate  records  can  only  be  made  with  trap-nests,  these  records 
are  valuable  to  the  average  poultryman  only  for  comparison,  so 
when  the  best  layers  can  be  selected  for  breeding  without  the  use 
of  trap-nests  as  good  results  can  be  attained  in  building  up  a  strain 
of  layers  with  one  system  as  with  the  other;  therefore  the  differ- 
ence in  the  two  systems  is  largely  a  question  of  time  and  expense 
in  their  application. 

The  different  systems  which  have  found  such  a  ready  sale  pre- 
tend to  teach  a  person  how  to  produce  fertile  eggs,  how  to  hatch 
more  chickens  from  them,  how  to  raise  the  chickens  without  much 
loss  and  how  to  produce  eggs  and  broilers  at  the  lowest  cost  when 
prices  are  high.  One  writer  tells  us  that  he  feeds  his  Leghorn  hens 
seven-eighths  of  an  ounce  of  green  cut  bones  each  per  day  and  that 
the  eggs  are  fertile  and  hatch  well  during  the  season.  Another 
writer,  equally  as  notorious,  states  that  this  cannot  be  done.  In 
other  words,  excessive  feeding  of  green  cut  bones  during  the  Win- 
ter and  Spring  weakens  the  vitality  of  the  breeding  stock  to  such 
an  extent  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  secure  high  average 
hatches,  although  the  fertility  of  the  eggs  may  run  as  high  as  90 
per  cent,  at  the  first  test  after  being  incubated  about  six  days.  After 
this  many  germs  die  in  the  shell,  and  many  of  the  young  chickens 
hatched  will  die  before  they  are  four  weeks  old.  This  is  the  expe- 
rience of  many  poultrymen,  and  substantial  evidence  must  be  pro- 
duced before  a  change  of  opinion  can  be  expected. 

The  similarity  of  many  systems  is  very  marked,  their  difference 
lying  chiefly  in  the  size  and  style  of  houses  used  or  some  difference 
in  the  feeds  used  or  manner  of  feeding;  but  there  are  several  prin- 
ciples which  practically  all  agree  cannot  be  overlooked  on  a  suc- 
cessful poultry  plant.  The  first  principle  is  cleanliness.  Neither 
chickens  nor  fowls  will  do  their  best  unless  their  houses  and  yards  are 
kept  clean.  Clean  litter  must  also  be  provided  for  the  birds  to 
scratch  in,  as  damp,  dirty  litter  offers  but  little  attraction  to  a  well- 
bred  hen.  Exercise  is  just  as  important  for  both  fowls  and  chickens 
as  their  food.  The  old  method  of  feeding  a  warm  morning  mash 
has  been  abolished,  and  the  new  systems  advocate  feeding  the  mash 
at  from  noon  to  three  P.  M.  The  first  feed  in  the  morning  and 
last  feed  at  night  Is  whole  or  cracked  grains,  usually  a  mixture 
of  corn,  oats,  wheat  and  buckwheat  scattered  in  deep  litter  on  the 
floor.  The  fowls  get  plenty  of  exercise  working  for  this  grain  on 
the  floor,  and  are  ready  for  some  green  feed  at  noon,  such  as  cab- 
bage, cut  clover  or  Alfalfa,  sprouted  oats  or  mangels.     Then  early 


134  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

in  the  afternoon  they  will  eat  a  good  feed  of  mash.  When  forcing 
hens  to  their  greatest  production  of  eggs,  the  mash  contains  from 
one-fourth  to  one-half  green  cut  bones  or  lean  meat,  while  the  rest 
is  made  up  of  bran,  ground  oats,  wheat  middlings,  cornmeal  and 
gluten  feed.  These  ingredients  are  mixed  into  a  crumbly  mash 
which  is  fed  very  dry.  No  oil  meal  should  be  used  except  during 
the  moulting  season.  This  mash  is  made  palatable  enough  so  the 
hens  will  eat  heartily  without  eating  too  much,  and  go  to  roost  with 
full  crops,  the  principle  of  this  method  of  feeding  being  never  to 
feed  a  hen  all  she  will  eat  except  at  the  last  feed  in  the  day,  given 
about  an  hour  before  sunset. 

Poultrymen  all  agree  that  beef  scrap,  lean  meat  or  green  cut 
bones  must  be  fed  liberally  if  a  large  ^^g  yield  is  expected.  This 
animal  food  may  either  be  fed  with  the  mash  or  kept  by  the  hens  all 
the  time  in  hoppers.  The  green  cut  bones  and  lean  meat  should  be 
fed  with  the  mash,  while  ground  beef  scrap  may  be  accessible  to 
the  fowls  at  all  times  in  open  hoppers. 

Another  principle  is  to  give  the  fowls  plenty  of  fresh  air  with- 
out drafts  or  undue  exposure  during  inclement  weather.  This  is 
accomplished  by  means  of  muslin  curtains,  except  in  a  few  cases 
where  the  windows  are  left  open,  allowing  the  fresh  air  to  come  in 
unrestricted.  It  is  possible  to  use  the  latter  method  successfully  by 
watching  it  closely  and  opening  a  part  or  all  of  the  windows  as 
the  weather  may  permit.  Fresh  air  and  sunshine  are  as  indispensable 
as  the  feed  is  for  fowls  or  chickens,  and  worth  more  than  all  the 
medicine  in  a  drug  store  for  keeping  the  flock  in  a  healthy  condi- 
tion. 

The  systems  of  hatching  and  raising  chickens  are  many  and 
varied.  To  the  experienced  poultryman  or  woman  it  seems  entirely 
unnecessary  to  be  told  to  run  an  incubator  at  102  degrees  the  first 
week,  103  degrees  the  second  week  and  103^  degrees  the  third 
week,  yet  this  is  about  the  extent  of  the  system's  teachings.  A  close 
study  of  all  the  principal  systems  on  the  market  at  the  present  time 
has  failed  to  reveal  any  valuable  new  features  in  regard  to  hatching 
or  rearing  young  chickens.  Simple  directions  are  usually  given 
which  prove  successful  under  favorable  conditions. 

Here  is  one  of  the  best  methods  of  feeding  chickens  in  common 
use.  Begin  feeding  when  about  36  hours  old.  The  first  feed  is  oat 
flakes  and  bread  crumbs,  equal  parts  mixed  with  a  little  hard-boiled 
eg^  chopped  fine,  shell  and  all.  The  bread  should  be  dried  and 
ground  fine  before  mixing.  This  should  be  moistened  slightly  with 
a  little  sweet  milk  and  fed  tv^^ice  daily  until  the  chicks  are  three 
weeks  old,  gradually  changing  to  a  cheaper  mash,  such  as  is  recom- 


THE  POULTRY  SYSTEMS  DISCUSSED.  135 

mended  for  older  birds.  A  very  little  fine  sifted  beef  scrap  is  fed 
after  the  first  week,  and  green  feed  is  fed  every  day  after  the  chicks 
are  three  days  old.  Commercial  chick  feed  is  scattered  in  clean 
litter  on  the  floor  two  or  three  times  a  day,  just  enough  to  keep 
the  chicks  busy,  but  not  enough  to  overfeed  them.  Great  care  must 
be  exercised  not  to  feed  chicks  too  much  before  they  are  four  weeks 
old,  as  they  are  more  apt  to  overeat  during  this  time  than  they  are 
later.  Fresh  water,  grit  and  charcoal  should  always  be  accessible 
after  the  little  fellows  have  learned  to  eat.  If  grit  is  given  before 
any  feed,  sometimes  chicks  will  eat  too  much  and  death  will  result. 

The  question  of  brooding  chickens  has  been,  perhaps,  the  most 
difficult  to  solve,  and  there  is  yet  much  to  learn  before  perfection 
is  reached.  Chickens  have  been  successfully  raised  in  unheated 
brooders,  but  many  failures  have  been  reported,  especially  during 
cold  weather.  It  would  therefore  be  advisable  to  use  unheated 
brooders  only  during  moderately  warm  weather.  In  using  brooders 
heated  with  a  lamp,  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  maintain 
an  even  temperature,  as  the  fluctuations  of  the  brooder  temperature 
cause  a  large  share  of  the  m.ortality  with  incubator  chickens.  Unless 
a  brooder  can  be  regulated  within  five  degrees,  it  cannot  be  expected 
to  produce  the  best  results. 

Chickens  on  free  range  can  be  fed  all  they  will  eat  after  they  are 
a  month  old  without  much  danger  of  overfeeding,  while  old  hens, 
after  passing  their  first  laying  year,  become  over-fat  very  easily, 
and  they  must  be  fed  in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  not  be  possible 
for  them  to  get  in  this  condition. 

Upon  the  number  of  hens  kept  in  each  flock  depends,  to  a  great 
extent,  the  style  of  houses  to  build.  The  systems  recommend 
keeping  all  the  way  from  six  to  1.500  hens  in  one  flock.  From  50 
to  100  hens  should  be  kept  in  each  flock  v;hen  a  large  number  are  to 
be  cared  for  during  Winter  weather,  v/hile  in  Summer  10  or  15  of 
these  flocks  may  have  free  range  together.  While  six  hens  may  be 
kept  safely  in  a  small  house,  and  made  to  produce  eggs  in  paying 
quantities,  it  is  not  reasonable  to  expect  them  to  produce  fertile  eggs 
with  strong  germs  while  kept  in  close  confinement.  It  requires  much 
more  labor  to  care  for  the  same  number  of  hen?  in  small  flocks  than 
it  does  with  large  flocks,  but  it  is  a  recognized  fact  that  young 
chickens  should  be  kept  in  flocks  of  50  or  less  for  best  results. 


CHAPTER   XV. 

SIDE    LINES    IN    POULTRY. 

FARM  CROPS  WITH  POULTRY.— Chicken  men  who  go  to 
the  country  and  locate  on  a  farm  often  ask  what  crops  they  should 
grow  to  best  advantage  in  connection  with  the  birds.  In  theory 
one  would  think  that  it  would  pay  a  hen  man  to  try  to  raise  all 
his  grain,  but  as  a  rule  this  will  not  be  found  wise.  If  a  man  is 
going  into  the  chicken  business  he  should  plan  to  give  most  of  his 
time  to  it,  make  that  his  sole  motive  and  make  other  crops  side 
issues.  Probably  corn,  of  all  the  grains,  is  best  suited  to  the 
chicken  man.  Chicken  manure  is  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of 
this  crop,  and  practically  all  poultry  rations  have  corn  for  their 
basis.  The  corn  crop  can  be  grown  as  easily  as  any  other  grain, 
and  will  produce  a  larger  amount  of  food  to  the  acre  than  most 
others.  The  chicken  man  should  try  to  follow  intensive  farming, 
that  is,  not  try  to  cover  too  much  ground,  but  to  produce  as  much 
as  he  possibly  can  from  each  acre.  A  crop  of  mangels  or  sugar 
beets  should  also  be  grown  on  a  hen  farm.  Some  enormous 
crops  of  roots  can  be  produced  with  a  little  care,  and  they  are  of 
immense  value  in  feeding  hens.  On  some  chicken  farms  a  good 
crop  of  cabbage  is  found  very  useful,  as  chicken  manure  is  par- 
ticularly valuable  for  all  crops  which  make  large  growth  above 
ground.  The  solid  heads  of  cabbage  can  be  sold,  while  the  soft 
heads  can  be  kept  for  Winter  feeding,  and  hung  up  by  the  roots 
where  the  hens  may  jump  and  pick  the  cabbage  to  pieces.  A 
hen  man  should  also  have  a  fair  crop  of  clover  or  Alfalfa,  for  by 
cutting  and  feeding  a  well-cured  crop  of  either  he  can  save  a  large 
proportion  of  his  grain  feed.  Some  poultrymen  prefer  to  have  a 
truck  or  fruit  crop  in  connection  with  their  hens,  and  if  they  have 
plenty  of  help,  so  that  they  can  give  time  to  it,  this  will  pay.  As 
a  rule,  however,  such  crops  require  the  greatest  care  just  when 
the  young  chickens  need  attention,  and  unless  there  is  careful  labor 
at  hand  one  crop  or  the  other  will  suffer.  That  is  why  late  matur- 
ing crops  like  cabbage  or  clover  are  better  suited  to  the  hen  man's 
care.  He  should  of  course  have  a  good  garden  and  keep  his  hens 
out  of  it.  If  possible  he  should  have  a  double  system  of  3^ards, 
so  that  the  hens   may  be  turned   from  one   to   the   other  at  will 


SIDE  LINES  IN  POULTRY.  137 

Our  own  plan  has  been  to  have  yards  on  both  sides  of  the  house. 
Early  in  Spring  oats  are  sown  on  the  south  side  of  the  house. 
When  it  is  up  fairly  well  so  as  to  make  a  feed  for  the  hens  the 
birds  are  let  in,  while  the  other  yard  is  closed.  Then  in  this  other 
yard  we  can  sow  Dwarf  Essex  rape.  By  the  time  the  birds  have 
eaten  the  oats  down  the  rape  has  made  a  good  growth ;  then  the 
hens  may  be  turned  back  into  the  rape,  and  the  first  yard  is 
worked  up  again  and  seeded  to  Crimson  clover  and  cow  peas. 
When  these  are  large  enough  the  hens  may  be  turned  in  and  the 
other  yard  sown  to  buckwheat  and  Crimson  clover.  That  in  turn 
gives  place  to  rye.  In  this  way  a  constant  supply  of  green  feed 
may  be  grown  for  the  hens,  and  the  yards  kept  seeded  and  clean. 
If  the  yards  are  small  and  the  hens  are  inclined  to  scratch  up  and 
destroy  the  growing  crop  this  can  be  prevented  by  putting  bricks 
or  planks  along  the  sides  of  the  3^ard  and  stretching  wire  netting 
across  the  green  crop.  This  will  grow  up  through  the  wire  netting 
and  enable  the  hens  to  reach  it  while  they  cannot  tear  up  the 
roots  with  their  feet.  (^ 

HANDLING  CHICKEN  MANURE.— I^  a  man  wishes  to 
keep  the  business  hen  in  a  business-like  way  he  must  plan  to  make 
every  edge  cut  and  save  what  he  can.  There  is  often  considerable 
loss  in  the  way  poultry  manure  is  handled,  largely  through  a  failure 
to  understand  certain  things  about  this  fertilizer.  This  manure 
is  quite  rich  in  nitrogen,  with  less  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid 
as  compared  with  ordinary  stable  manure.  It  is  worth  four  or 
five  times  as  much,  pound  for  pound,  and  when  properly  handled  is 
a  very  valuable  manure  for  all  kinds  of  crops.  The  proper  way 
to  handle  it  is  to  save  as  much  of  the  ammonia  as  possible.  This 
ammonia  will  not  be  lost  so  long  as  the  manure  is  kept  perfectly 
dry.  For  that  reason  the  best  plan  is  to  use  dry  absorbents  under 
the  roosts,  and  to  clean  off  the  droppings  board  frequently.  Various 
substances  are  used  to  dry  the  manure.  Road  dust  collected  in  the 
dry  Summer  and  stored  in  barrels  answers  the  purpose.  Of  late 
years  many  poultrymen  are  using  "floats,"  which  is  the  raw  phos- 
phate rock  ground  to  a  fine  powder  and  not  treated  with  sulphuric 
acid.  This  makes  a  very  good  dust,  and  as  it  contains  phosphoric 
acid  it  adds  to  the  value  of  the  manure.  Some  years  ago  land  plas- 
ter or  gypsum  was  the  favorite  material  used  for  this  purpose  and 
it  is  very  useful.  Some  form  of  dust,  however,  should  be  scat- 
tered each  day  under  the  perches,  and  before  the  droppings  accum- 
ulate heavily  they  should  be  scraped  off  and  put  in  bins  or  barrels 
in  a  dry  shed.  More  of  the  dust  is  scattered  over  them  as  they 
are  stored.     The  result  is  that  Spring  will  find  them  in  dry  hard 


138  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

chunks  with  little  of  the  ammonia  lost.     Early  in  the  Spring,  before 
the  manure  is  needed,  these  chunks  should  be  crushed  and  ground 
as  finely  as  possible.     This  can  be  done  fairly  well  by  putting  the 
chunks  on  a  cement  floor  and  smashing  them  with  a  heavy  shovel 
or    a   maul.     As    the    chicken    manure    is    richer    in    nitrogen    than 
any  other  fertilizing  elements  it  can  be  used  to  advantage  to  make 
a   good   mixture.     The    following   mixture   will    prove    very    useful 
for   most   crops ;   400   pounds    sifted   hen   manure,    200   pounds    dis- 
solved bone  black,  100  pounds  muriate  of  potash,  and  150  pounds 
of   plaster    and    100    pounds    nitrate    of    soda.      Such    a    mixture    is 
excellent   for   garden   or   small    fruit   crops.    The   crushed   manure 
must  be  sifted  in  order  to  make  a  perfect  mixture.     If  this  is  prop- 
erly  done   it   v/ill   give   as    good    results    as    the   great   majority   of 
expensive  brands.     In  many  cases  farmers  do  not  care  to  go  to  the 
trouble   of  mixing  the   chemicals   with    the   manure.     In   that   case, 
the   chunks   are   crushed   and    the   manure   applied    direct   by   hand, 
usually    in    the    hill    or    drill.     Chicken    manure    is    excellent    for 
corn,   and  will  perhaps  give  better   results  on   that  crop   than   any 
other.     Some  chicken  men  do  not  bother  with  saving  and  drying, 
but  clean  out  the  houses  at  intervals  and  carry  the  manure  direct 
to  the  field,  broadcasting  it  over   the  grass  or  grain.     During  the 
Winter  this  gives  good  results  where  the  soil  has  some  living  crop 
like  grass   or  corn  growing  on  it.     It  would  not  be  recommended 
for  bare  fields  which  might  be  washed  by  floods.     The  one  thing 
tiot  to  do  with  hen  manure  is  to  mix  lime  or  wood  ashes  with  it. 
This  would  be  the  worst  thing  you  could  do,   since  the  lime  will 
liberate   the   ammonia.     Some   poultrymen   use   "kainit,"   a   German 
potash  salt  with  the  manure.    TWs  preserves  it  well,  but  leaves  it 
moist  and  sticky.    After  several  years  of  use  the  runs  or  chicken 
yards  become  very  rich  from  the  droppings  and  the  constant  work- 
ing of  the  hens.     When  a  chicken  man  has  time  for  it  it  will  pay 
during  late  Fall   or  early   Spring   to   take   off  the   upper  three   or 
four    inches    of    these    yards    and    spread    them    as    he    would    any 
manure   or   fertilizer    in   fields    where    crops    are    to    be    grown.     A 
good  way  to  do  this  work  is  to  take  a  small  plow  or  horse  culti- 
vator and  run  over  the  surface  of  the  yard;  then  with  a  scraper 
scrape  the  earth  into  piles  and  shovel  it  into  a  wagon  or  a  stone- 
boat.     When  these  yards   are   cleaned   in  this   way   dirt   should  be 
brought  in  to  take  its  place,  and  this  can  be  left  two  years   and 
then  taken  out.    An   easier  way  to   clean   the  yards   is   to   change 
them,   that    is,   move   the    hens    to    another    point,   tear    down    the 
fences,  plow  up  the  old  yards  and  use  them  one  year  or  more  as 
a  garden.    This   soil  will  produce   enormous   crops   of  all  garden 


SIDE  LINES  IN  POULTRY.  139 

vegetables,  and  after  growing  such  crops  it  will  be  fitted  again  for 
a  chicken  yard.  It  has  been  well  said  that  the  business  hen  will 
give  a  profit  in  the  present  and  leave  a  blessing  behind  her.  A 
Connecticut  Yankee  will  buy  a  bushel  of  Western  corn,  feed  it  to 
his  hens  at  a  profit,  and  then  by  adding  chemicals  to  the  resulting 
manure  raise  another  bushel  of  corn. 

HENS,  TREES  AND  INSECTS.— Tree  fruits,  and  especially 
apples,  make  good  partners  for  the  business  hen.  Chicken  manure  is 
excellent  for  apple  trees,  especially  if  wood  ashes  can  also  be  used 
— not,  however,  mixed  with  the  manure.  In  many  apple  growing 
sections  hens  are  being  selected  as  the  best  live  stock  to  keep  in  the 
orchards.  In  such  cases  the  hens  are  usually  kept  in  colony 
houses — that  is,  small  buildings  scattered  about  the  orchard.  The 
hens  have  a  free  range  under  this  system.  That  means  plenty  of 
exercise,  a  good  pasturage  and  an  abundance  of  insects.  A  hen 
on  the  range  will  provide  a  large  part  of  her  food  by  picking 
clover,  grass  and  seeds,  and  hunting  insects.  During  the  laying 
period  such  hens  should  be  fed  some  grain,  but  eggs  are  produced 
at  much  less  cost  in  this  way  than  v/hen  the  hens  are  kept  housed 
or  yarded  with  little  chance  at  grass  or  insects.  A  man  starting 
in  the  hen  business  can  sometimes  buy  a  farm  with  a  few  level 
acres,  and  the  rest  rough  and  hilly.  Such  farm.s  are  usually  sold 
at  a  low  figure,  because  the  rough  part  is  not  considered  suitable 
for  crop  production.  These  are  locations  for  the  business  hen  to 
make  good.  The  flocks  can  be  started  near  the  farm  buildings 
and  apple  or  peach  trees  planted  on  the  hills.  It  is  possible  to  make 
fair  and  steady  growth  without  high  culture.  A  few  furrows  may 
be  plowed  on  either  side  of  the  tree  rows,  and  this  plowed  space 
worked  several  times  during  the  season  with  a  cultivator.  Then 
the  trees  are  "mulched' ;  that  is,  manure,  grass,  weeds,  fine  brush 
or  anything  that  will  rot,  is  piled  around  them.  Chicken  manure 
or  the  litter  used  on  the  floor  of  the  house  makes  a  fine  mulch  for 
these  young  trees.  Efiforts  should  be  made  to  collect  forest  leaves, 
straw,  crushed  corncobs  or  any  material  of  the  sort  to  be  used  on 
the  henhouse  floors  and  afterwards  used  for  mulching  these  trees. 
If  the  hen  manure  can  be  crushed  or  handled,  as  described  else- 
where in  this  book,  it  will  make  a  better  fertilizer  for  the  trees. 
In  this  way  a  good  apple  orchard  may  be  developed  as  the  flock  is 
growing,  and  in  time,  as  the  flock  is  enlarged,  the  orchard  will 
provide  a  good  run  for  the  hens. 

Fruit  trees  are  often  planted  in  chicken  yards.  Apple  and  plum 
do  better  in  such  situations  than  peach.  The  soil  of  such  yards  is 
well  manured,  and  the  hens  dig  and  dust  around  the  trees.     This 


140  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

means  the  highest  manuring  and  cultivation.  The  hens  also  roost 
in  the  trees,  and  the  manure  thus  accumulated  makes  the  soil  very- 
rich.  Apple  and  plum  can  stand  this  heavy  manuring  better  than 
peach.     The  tender  growth  of  the  latter  is  likely  to  winter-kill. 

Aside  from  their  work  in  orchards,  hens  are  of  great  service 
in  destroying  insects.  One  of  the  best  "remedies"  for  onion  mag- 
got or  asparagus  beetle  is  a  collection  of  hens  with  their  little 
chicks.  The  hens  are  put  in  coops  which  are  scattered  over  the 
onion  field — the  chicks  being  left  free  to  run  about.  The  little 
chicks  will  clean  out  the  maggots  without  scratching  enough  to 
hurt  the  onions.  They  Vvall  also  get  many  of  the  beetles  on  aspara- 
gus. After  some  observation,  we  feel  sure  that  both  hens  and 
turkeys  pick  out  the  green  worms  in  cabbage.  There  are  several 
reports  from  reliable  people  who  have  kept  half  grown  chickens 
enclosed  in  potato  fields.  These  claim  that  the  chicks  cleaned  up 
the  potato  beetles  so  that  there  was  no  need  of  spraying.  In  our 
own  experience,  we  have  not  noticed  that  hens  or  ducks  will  eat 
potato  beetles,  but  they  are  useful  in  potato  fields — that  is,  when 
too  young  to  do  a  full  job  of  scratching.  No  full-grown  hen 
should  be  left  at  large  in  a  garden,  but  a  hen  with  chicks  may  be 
cooped  in  it,  for  the  little  fellows  will  run  out  and  get  many 
insects. 

LAW  OF  THE  HEN.— Some  bitter  neighborhood  feuds 
have  been  started  by  straying  hens.  When  a  man  living  in  a  small 
place  starts  a  good  vegetable  and  flower  garden,  it  becomes  an 
object  of  pride.  It  is  impossible  for  a  hen  to  scratch  in  a  more 
sensitive  place  than  in  this  same  pride,  and  when  she  comes 
back  day  after  day  and  tears  up  seeds  or  young  plants,  there 
is  a  fall  for  somebody.  The  question  of  what  can  be  done  in 
such  cases  comes  up  again  and  again.  It  is  sometimes  claimed 
that  a  hen  destroying  a  neighbor's  garden  becomes  a  wild  bird 
and  can  be  shot.  That  is  not  so.  You  shoot  such  straying  hens  at 
your  own  risk,  but  about  all  the  owner  can  do  at  law  is  to  bring 
suit  for  the  value  of  the  hens.  All  you  could  sue  him  for  would 
be  the  value  of  crops  destroyed.  So  that  lawing  is  about  the  most 
unsatisfactory  part  of  a  hen  quarrel,  A  reasonable  man  will  keep 
his  hens  shut  up  if  you  go  at  him  right.  If  he  v/ill  not  do  so,  the 
treatment  varies  as  to  whether  you  are  aggressive  or  diplomatic. 
The  fighting  man  generally  shoots  a  few  hens  and  carries  them  to 
the  neighbor's  property.  This  makes  bad  feeling,  but  the  hens  are 
kept  at  home.  The  diplomatist  makes  the  hens  welcome — ^puts  up 
a  little  house  and  yard  with  nests,  and  entices  the  hens  into  it. 
They  will  lay  there  and  usually  go  home  when  night  comes.     You 


SIDE  LINES  IN  POULTRY.  141 

get  their  eggs  and  the  owner  usually  gets  wise  and  shuts  them  up. 
If  you  cannot  get  the  owner  to  keep  them  at  home,  you  will  have 
to  protect  your  plants  with  wire  netting.  A  lively  young  dog  can 
be  trained  to  drive  the  hens  away.  As  a  last  result  the  suggestion 
which  follows  might  be  taken: 

A  maiden  lady  owned  a  piece  of  ground, 

And  morn  and  eve  in  Summer  she  was  found 

Within  her  garden.     But  her  neighbor  kept, 

A  flock  of  hens,  and  while  she  worked  or  slept. 

With  busy  feet  they  dug  her  finest  seed. 

In  vain  she  chased  them,  at  her  utmost  speed, 

And  "shooed"  and  stoned  them,  quite  undignified. 

The  while  her  neighbor  laughed  until  he  cried. 

But  women  who  can  foil  the  wiles  of  men. 

Will  not  be  daunted  by  a  Leghorn  hen. 

The  hand  that  rocks  the  cradle,  still  can  block 

Man's  ridicule,  and  give  his  nerves  a  shock. 

Our  lady  cried  a  bit — as  was  her  right — 

Then  took  some  cards  and  on  each  one  did  write : 

"Please  keep  your  hens  at  home!"     A  seed  of  corn 

She  strung  to  each.     With  early  break  of  dawn 

Back  came  the  hens;  they  gobbled  grain  and  string, 

Then  back  for  home  they  started  on  the  wing. 

"Please  keep,"  he  scratched  his  head — his  heart  was  hard. 

From  every  mouth  they  dragged  the  lady's  card. 

But  shame  cut  through  it  like  a  knife,  and  hence 

His  hens  no  more  flew  o.'er  the  lady's  fence. 

FITTING  EXHIBITION  BIRDS.— Preparing  birds  for  exhi- 
bition is  an  art  in  which  a  person  must  be  thoroughly  interested 
and  willing  to  work  weeks,  months  and  even  years  to  accomplish 
a  certain  object.  The  object  in  this  case  is  to  win  the  blue  ribbon 
at  some  of  our  large  poultry  shows.  Competition  is  so  keen  and 
close  at  the  present  time  that  the  preparation  for  exhibition  must 
begin  with  a  bird's  ancestors.  Good  breeding,  which  usually  means 
line  breeding,  is  necessary  to  produce  the  best  specimens.  The 
question  is  often  asked  if  incubator  chickens  are  as  good  for  exhibi- 
tion as  those  hatched  by  the  natural  method.  In  my  experience,  I 
can  see  no  difference  when  the  birds  are  kept  in  houses  of  the  same 
size  and  in  the  samiC  sized  flocks.  Fifty  chickens  in  a  brooder  are 
not  as  apt  to  develop  into  exhibition  specimens  as  quickly  or  surely 
as  10  chickens  hatched  and  raised  by  a  hen,  provided  both  have 
proper  feed  and  care.    As  a  rule,  the  small  flocks  of  10  to  20  birds 


142  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

in  a  good-sized  house  with  free  range,  develop  into  finer  specimens 
than  those  raised  in  larger  flocks  or  in  confinement.  It  is  also 
advisable  to  grow  the  birds  near  an  orchard  or  cornfield,  where 
there  is  plenty  of  shade,  as  some  varieties  will  not  hold  their  proper 
color  when  exposed  too  much  to  the  sun.  The  birds  should  be 
grown  and  developed  just  as  fast  as  possible,  with  good  feed  and 
care,  without  forcing.  The  feed  does  not  vary  much  from  that 
recommended  for  the  general  flock,  except  that  more  hominy, 
cornmeal  and  cracked  corn  are  usually  required  to  get  young 
stock  in  the  proper  condition.  Old  stock  should  be  in  full  feather 
and  standard  weight,  without  being  over  fat.  Care  should  be  taken 
not  to  feed  too  much  beef  scrap  during  the  conditioning  period,  as 
it  is  likely  to  make  the  pullets  lay  too  quickly.  A  pullet  is  usually 
in  the  best  condition  for  exhibition  just  when  she  reaches  laying 
maturity,  and  cockerels  should  be  in  full  feather  and  up  to  standard 
weight.  Birds  intended  for  exhibition  should  be  handled  and 
trained  for  several  weeks  before  the  show,  so  they  will  learn  to 
pose  in  natural  and  attractive  positions,  instead  of  acting  afraid  and 
sulky  when  approached  by  the  judge. 

Cocks  and  cockerels,  and  hens  and  pullets  should  be  condi- 
tioned in  separate  pens,  to  avoid  injury  to  the  feathers  by  each 
other.  The  American  Standard  of  Perfection  is  the  guide  used  in 
judging  at  all  poultry  shows.  It  describes  all  recognized  breeds  and 
varieties,  so  that  each  exhibitor  can  become  familiar  with  the 
standard  requirements  of  the  breed  or  breeds  he  is  handling. 

About  10  days  before  the  show,  all  white  birds  should  be 
washed,  and  again  two  or  three  days  before  showing.  Colored 
birds  do  not,  as  a  rule,  require  washing.  To  wash  a  bird  properly 
requires  a  great  deal  of  care  and  some  experience.  The  process 
is  as  follows:  Provide  two  warm  rooms,  adjoining  each  other, 
one  heated  to  about  75  degrees  for  washing  and  the  other  heated 
to  90  or  95  degrees  for  drying.  The  drying  room  should  be  fitted 
with  plenty  of  cloth-covered  coops  with  open  front,  and  set  well 
up  off  the  floor.  The  washroom  should  be  supplied  with  four 
tubs,  the  first  containing  quite  warm  water  for  washing,  the  next 
two  contain  slightly  cooler  water  for  rinsing,  and  the  fourth  con- 
tains cooler  water,  blued  just  right  for  fine  linen.  Wash  each 
bird  clean  in  the  first  tub  with  good  v/hite  soap,  being  careful  not  to 
muss  or  break  any  feathers.  Then  rinse  thoroughly  in  the  second 
and  third  tubs,  and  dip  in  the  blue  water  before  placing  in  the 
drying  coops.  Keep  an  even  temperature  in  the  drying  room  until 
all  the  birds  are  dry,  and  then  cool  it  off  gradually. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

HOMEMADE    POULTRY    DEVICES. 

Here  is  a  cut  of  a  hen  coop  that  I  have  found  very  conve- 
nient in  raising  chicks  with  hens,  to  keep  them  from  the  hawks 
when  small.  The  cage  in  front  of  the  common  A  coop  is  made 
of  half-inch  lumber  and  covered  with  1^-inch  poultry  netting. 
It  is  attached  to  each  side  of  the  coop  with  one  nail  so  it  will 
easily  fit  any  unevenness  of  the  ground.  Being  light  it  can  be 
moved  a  little  every  day  or  two  to  give  a  clean  spot  and  fresh 
grass.  The  hen  is  confined  in  the  coop,  and,  after  the  chicks 
are  old  enough,  the  front  of  cage  can  be  raised  up  on  a  brick  so 
they  can  run  out.    I  let  them  stay  in  the  coop  nights  after  taking 


HAWK- PROOF  COOP.    Fig.  31. 


HANDY  FEED  HOPPERr~FiQ.  33. 


the   hen   away  till   I   want   to   put   them   in   the   Winter   quarters. 
They  are  easily  shut  in  by  pulling  the  brick  out.  G.  w.  s. 

Vermont. 

We  devised  and  are  using  the  hopper  shown  at  Fig.  32  for 
feeding  fattening  fowls  of  all  ages.  The  front  consists  of  two 
strips  two  inches  wide,  with  a  space  of  three  inches  between.  The 
ends  are  made  of  thick  boards  six  inches  wide,  seven  inches  high 
at  front  and  10  inches  at  back.  The  lid  consists  of  two  boards 
two  inches  and  four  inches  wide  respectively,  the  wider  attached 
to  the  narrow  by  means  of  hinges.  A  board  two  inches  wide  is 
sufficient  for  the  back,  which  is  placed  against  one  side  of  the 
room  in  which  the  fowls  are  confined.  On  each  side  of  front 
space  small  nails  are  driven  about  two  inches  apart  and  in  nearly 
to  the  head.  To  prevent  crowding  and  smaller  fowls  from  creeping 
in,  wire  clipped  from  baled  straw  is  stretched  across  from  one 
nail  to  another  in  front  space.  The  bottom  is  a  separate  piece 
sawed  to  fit  inside  and  on  which  the  feed  is  placed.    It  may  be 


144 


THE  BUSINESS  BEN. 


made    any   length    desired.     One    eight    feet    long   is    sufficient    for 
20  fowls,  broiler  size.  J.  c.  c. 

Pennsylvania. 
I  make  lice-proof  roosts  as  follows.     Get  one-half-inch  round 
irons,    stick  through   the   floor   into   the   ground   far   enough   to   be 
firm,  and  on  these  the  3x4  stick  for  roost.    Then  make  a  cup  of 


LICE-PROOF  ROOST.   Fig.  33. 


GATE  DEVICE.    FiG.  31 


tin  and  core  to  fit  on  the  round  iron,  and  fill  cup  with  kerosene. 
Fig.   33   shows  how  it  is   done.  h.   g. 

Washington. 

Fig.  34  shows  a  device  I  am  using  on  partition  doors  in  my  hen 
houses.  As  far  as  I  know  it  is  original.  The  door  swings  on  pins 
for  hinges  so  it  opens  either  way  without  the  attendant  stopping 
to  fasten  or  unfasten.  The  string  passes  between  two  spools  over 
the  front  end  of  the  door,  A  brick  makes  about  the  right  weight. 
Connecticut.  G.  t.  j. 

The  Figs.  35-36  show  a  homemade  gate  that  I  find  of  consider- 
able service  around  my  poultry  yards.   I  arranged  this  gate  at  first 


GATE  CLOSED.  Fig.  35.  GATE  OPEN.  FiG.  36. 

to  allow  my  dog  to  have  free  access  to  the  poultry  runs,  so  that  if 
there  was  any  disturbance  night  or  day  he  could  get  there  right 


HOMEMADE  POULTRY  DEVICES, 


145 


away  and  see  about  it.  I  also  found  that  I  could  use  it  to  my 
own  advantage  in  passing  through  the  gates  with  feed  or  water 
pails  in  each  hand.  I  take  a  rope  about  the  size  of  a  clothesline,  or 
what  is  better,  three  small  ropes  and  braid  them,  the  braided  rope 
will  not  chafe  out  so  quickly  as  the  single  rope,  then  fasten  to  the 
top  of  gate  post.  To  the  other  end  of  rope  I  attach  a  block  of 
2x3  joist  12  or  15  inches  long,  and  throw  over  the  gate  as  shown. 
This  will  close  the  gate,  and  dog  or  man  can  push  it  open,  and  pass 
under  the  rope.  In  making  the  gate  allow  the  upright  near  the 
rope  to  extend  up  a  few  inches  to  keep  the  rope  on,  and  bevel  the 
top  part  of  gate  where  the  rope  passes  over.  It  did  not  take  over 
five  minutes  to  teach  the  dog  to  open  the  gate  from  either  side. 
Massachusetts.  h.  w.  r. 

Here   is   a   picture,    Fig.    37,    of   a    drinking   fountain    that   has 
proved  valuable  to  me.     It  is  made  from  any  jug.    The  jug  should 


JUG-DRINKING  FOUNTAIN. 
Fig.  37. 


USING  A  FRUIT  CAN. 
Fig.  38. 


have  a  rim  around  the  top  as  this  is  what  it  rests  on  when  inverted 
on  the  frame  or  support.  The  support  is  triangular  in  shape  and 
is  made  to  fit  under  the  rim  of  the  jug.  I  usually  make  the  sup- 
port out  of  some  strips  three  inches  wide  and  one  inch  thick. 
There  is  a  leg  at  each  corner  made  of  the  same  stuff.  The  legs 
should  be  long  enough  to  place  the  mouth  of  the  jar  about  three 
inches  from  the  ground.  In  that  case  they  will  be  six  inches  long 
or  perhaps  a  little  longer.  This  is  regulated  by  the  depth  of  the 
pan  under  the  jug,  the  mouth  of  the  jug  should  be  about  a  half 
inch  below  the  top  of  the  pan,  and  the  jug  will  keep  that  much 
water  in  the  pan  until  the  jug  is  empty.  I  use  gallon  jugs,  carry 
them  to  the  well  two  at  a  time  and  fill  with  a  hose.  They  are 
carried  to  the  frame  under  which  the  pan  is  kept  and  inverted.  The 
jugs  being  white  they  will  keep  the  water  cooler  than  any  other 
thing  I  know  of.  W.  D.  s. 

Virginia. 


146 


THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 


A  good  water  fount  for  chicks  can  be  made  out  of  a  Mason  fruit 
jar  by  taking  the  cover  and  putting  a  hole  a  half  inch  from  the  edge. 
Solder  a  lip  on.  Then  notch  two  pieces  of  board  and  nail  slats  to 
sides  to  lay  jar  in.  This  is  easily  kept  clean.  A,  Fig.  38,  is  top  of 
jar  cover,  B,  hole  in  cover,  C,  lip  to  be  soldered  on. 

A  good  way  for  town  poultry  keepers  to  keep  green  feed 
before  the  chickens  at  all  times,  without  much  labor,  is  to  make 
a  frame  of  three-inch  boards,  the  boards  standing  on  edge  and 
cover  with  one-half-inch  square  mesh  wire  cloth  or  netting.  This 
can  be  made  any  size  to  suit,  the  one  I  have  reference  to  is  6x4 
feet.  Take  a  piece  of  ground  the  size  of  frame  and  after  spading 
in  a  lot  of  manure  rake  it  level,  sow  oats  on  it  rather  heavy, 
and  cover  with  good  soil.  Then  put  the  frame  over  and  let  it 
grow.  The  chickens  will  see  that  it  does  not  grow  above  the  wire. 
Pennsylvania.  g.  g.  l. 

We  live  out  on  this  Western  prairie,  away  from  any  good 
source   of   supplies.     I   wanted   something   to    feed   and   water   my 


CAN  MADE  USEFUL. 
Fig.  39. 


HOW  IT  HANGS  UP. 
Fig.  40. 


chickens  out  of,  that  they  couldn't  soil,  and  made  it  for  them  from 
tomato  and  salmon  cans.  I  opened  the  cans,  when  I  wished  to 
use  the  contents,  down  the  side  and  a  few  inches  on  either  end, 
then  turned  the  opened  piece  of  tin  back  and  made  a  couple  of 
holes  in  it  to  hang  up  by.  The  birds  cannot  get  into  them  and 
they  are  very  easily  cleaned.  Figs.  39-40  show  how  this  is  done. 
North  Dakota.  v.  e. 

When  the  chicks  are  too  small  to  feed  in  a  trough,  and  you 
want  to  put  feed  for  them  on  a  flat  board,  the  old  hen  gets  on  and 
scratches  it  to  waste.  Fasten  a  section  of  wire  netting  on  to  the 
board,  flat,  and  put  on  the  feed  as  before,  no  matter  whether  it  is 
dry  or  wet.  Next  time  the  hen  tries  to  scratch  her  body  will 
move  instead  of  her  feet. 

To  provide  green  food  for  chicks  early  in  the  season,  get  a 
block  6x8  inches  square,  or  6x10  would  be  better;  saw  a  notch  in 


HOMEMADE  POULTRY  DEVICES, 


147 


the  upper  side,  three  inches  deep  and  three  wide  at  one  side,  and 
six  at  the  other.  Get  a  piece  of  light  sleigh-shoe  steel,  about  two 
feet  long,  and  get  the  smith  to  draw  out  one  end  to  put  a  handle 
on,  punch  a  hole  in  the  other,  and  grind,  hammer  or  file  to  a  sharp 
edge  a  section  of  the  steel  wide  enough  to  reach  across  the  notch 
in  block  and  about  six  inches  from  end,  with  hole  in  it.  Bolt 
the  knife  to  block  a  little  lower  than  bottom  of  notch.  Bevel  to 
knife  should  be  all  on  one  side  and  away  from  block.  When 
grass  gets  long  enough  to  cut  with  knife  or  grass  hook,  take  some 
of  it,  put  in  notch  in  block  and  feed  it  along  with  left  hand,  and 
with  the  right  hand  on  knife  you  can  cut  it  as  fine  as  you  please. 
When  the  bottom  of  notch  gets  worn  away,  insert  a  section  of 
stout  hoop  iron  for  knife  to  play  down  beside,  so  as  to  make  clean  cut 
Figs.  41-42  show  how  this  is  done. 

When  chicks  get  older  and  you  want  to  give  them  weeds  or 
any  kind  of  large  leaves,  tack  some  wire  netting  on  a  frame  and 


GRASS  CUTTER.    FiG.  41. 


TOP  OF  BLOCK.    Fig.  42. 


place  it  on  the  weeds  to  hold  them  down.  The  fowls  can  tear  off 
what  they  want  as  well  as  if  plants  were  growing.  They  are  very 
fond  of  plantain  leaves  and  clippings  from  too  vigorous  Dahlias. 
When  you  have  surplus  sweet  corn  to  give  the  chickens,  drive 
wire  nails,  five  or  six  inches  long,  through  a  stout  board,  turn  it 
over  and  set  the  ears  on  these  nails,  and  chicks  will  clean  corn 
all  off  without  rolling  it  about  in  the  dirt.  o.  h.  l. 

New  Hampshire. 

Flour  barrels  make  excellent  coops,  roomy  and  cheap.  A 
little  frame  is  made  for  the  front,  consisting  of  four  pieces  of 
board,  the  uprights  6x24  inches,  and  two  crosspieces,  top  and  bot- 
tom, 2x20  inches.  Fasten  frame  to  front  of  barrel  by  wire,  leaving 
opening  for  door.  Fix  so  that  a  slide  door,  eight  inches  wide,  can 
be  easily  dropped  in  from  the  top.  This  door  is  made  of  one-half- 
inch  mesh  cellar  window  wire,  nailed  or  stapled  to  strips  of  wood. 
This  gives  good  ventilation  and  is  absolutely  vermin-proof.     Cover 


148 


THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 


barrel  with  old  tin  roofing  or  spouting,  so  as  to  make  rain-proof 
and  prevent  the  sun  from  warping  it.  Of  course,  a  coat  of  paint 
will  add  to  its  attractiveness,  but  is  not  necessary  for  practical  pur- 
poses. Runs  of  any  size  made  of  wire  netting  can  be  attached  to 
barrel,  and  with  the  netting  over  the  top  of  runs  the  chicks  are 
safe  from  crows  or  the  annoyance  of  grown  chickens.  Barrels 
and  runs  can  be  readily  moved  on  to  fresh  ground.  The  runs  are 
made  substantial  by  the  addition  of  a  few  stakes  driven  into  the 
ground  to  support  the  wire  netting.  Front  and  side  views  are 
shown  in  Figs.  43-44.  For  feeding  dry  mash,  we  use  a  box  two 
inches  deep  at  sides  and  three  and  one-half  inches  deep  at  ends, 
seven  inches  wide,  42  inches  long,  inside  measure.  For  feet,  have 
four  pieces,  one  inch  square  and  12  inches  long,    Nail  these  to  ends 


BARREL  COOP.    Fig.  43. 


SIDE  VIEW.    Fig.  44. 


of  box,  having  top  of  three  and  one-half-inch  ends,  eight  and  one- 
half  inches  high.  For  top  have  board  five  inches  wide,  nailed  on 
to  cleat  at  each  end  of  top,  to  prevent  its  slipping  out  of  place. 
This  trough  keeps  the  feed  clean  and  chickens  do  not  scratch 
it  out.  A.  E.  F. 

Pennsylvania. 
In  Fig.  45  is  shown  a  scraper  for  cleaning  the  droppings 
boards.  The  blade,  indicated  by  arrow  a,  is  made  of  three-six- 
teenths or  one-fourth  inch  sheet  steel.  The  bottom  edge  is  twenty- 
four  inches  long  and  the  top  twenty-tv/o  inches.  The  width  of 
the  blade  is  four  inches.  The  handle  is  made  of  three-quarter  inch 
pipe  and  threaded  on  one  end.  A  hole  is  bored  near  the  top  in 
the  centre  of  the  blade.     This  is  threaded  with  an  ordinary  tap 


HOMEMADE  POULTRY  DEVICES. 


149 


and  the  handle  is  then  securely  screwed  in  place.  A  scraper  made 
in  this  manner  will  last  a  lifetime,  and  prove  to  be  a  very  practical 
tool. 

In  running  an  tgg  farm  there  often  is  a  good  deal  more  young 
stock  in  the  Summer  than  there  is  house  room  for.  Unless  these 
young  pullets  are  trained  to  roost  soon  after  they  leave  the  brood- 
ers, there  will  be  trouble  teaching  them  this  accomplishment.  A 
standardized  roost  for  temporary  quarters  has  been  found  a  greai 
convenience.  Take  some  rough-backed  young  saplings,  cutting  a  lot 
of  supports  about  two  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter  and  54  inches 
long,  drive  in  a  four-inch  spike  15  inches  from  each  end  and  one  in 
the  middle,  leaving  two  inches  of  the  spike  to  protrude  for  a  sup- 
port. Then  set  these  poles  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  against  the 
walls  of  any  building  to  be  used  for  temporary  roosting  place,  and 
put  any  convenient  length  poles  on  the  spike  in  the  supports  for 


DROPPINGS  BOARD  SCRAPER. 

Fig.  45. 


TEMPORARY  ROOST. 
Fig.  46. 


roosts.     They  can  be  used  year  after  year  if  kept  in  a  dry  place 
when   not   in  use.     The   cut,   Fig.   46,    shows  this.  •      p.   B. 

Michigan. 
One  of  the  most  provoking  problems  in  poultry  keeping  is 
the  determination  of  the  hens  to  lay  in  one  nest.  No  matter 
whether  half  a  dozen  other  nests  exactly  alike  in  every  respect 
are  right  near  that  one,  they  will  crowd  and  fight  around  one  or 
two  nests,  often  smashing  a  couple  of  eggs,  soiling  the  nest  and 
causing  trouble  all  around.  Last  year  I  found  a  way  to  prevent 
this.  I  made  a  frame  out  of  1^-inch  strips  of  pine  boards,  size 
of  frame  16x36  inches.  Next  I  took  a  piece  of  galvanized  poultry 
netting  >2-inch  mesh,  size  24x48  inches,  stapling  this  to  the  frame, 
turning  the  corners  in.  This  forms  a  continuous  nest,  about  3  feet 
long.  After  one  hen  has  squatted  down  to  lay  the  next  one  will 
sit  down  close  alongside  of  her,  and  I  have  had  as  many  as  ten 
of  them  sitting  in  a  row,  as  peaceful  as  it  is  possible  for  that 
number  of  biddies  to  be.  As  soon  as  one  hen  is  done  and  leaves, 
the  nearest  one  of  the  hens  next  to  her  will  carefully  roll  that  egg 


150 


THE  BUSINESS  HlEN. 


under  herself,  and  most  of  the  time  the  last  hen  or  two  will  have 
all  the  eggs  under  them.  Two  or  three  such  njests  will  be  sufB- 
cient  for  fifty  to  sixty  hens.  One  improvement  I  have  lately  added, 
by  making  the  fram.e  out  of  old  pieces  of  5^-inch  pipe,  using 
elbows  for  the  corners.  This  way  I  can  take  the  nest  outside  and 
set  fire  to  it.  I  believe  anyone  who  has  tried  to  keep  the  old 
wooden  nest  boxes  clean  during  hot  weather,  will  appreciate  the 
improvement.  c.  h. 

Illinois. 

INSIDE  HOUSE  ARRANGEMENT.— "I  enclose  sketch  of 
sectional  view  of  our  henhouse,  Fig.  47.  A  indicates  an  aisle  three 
feet  wide  running  full  length  of  building,  which  is  40  feet;  B,  scratch- 
ing and  roosting  section ;  I,  partition  with  studding  eight  inches  apart 


;  -p 


]i^ 


INSIDE  HOUSE  ARRANGEMENT.    Fig.  47. 


and  covered  with  poultry  netting;  C,  row  of  nests,  each  15  inches 
square,  raised  four  inches  off  the  floor.  On  these  rests  the  droppings 
board  G,  and  above  on  brackets  the  two  lines  of  roosts  H.  Board 
E  is  hinged  every  four  feet  at  the  bottom,  that  it  may  be  dropped 
to  facilitate  cleaning  and  disinfecting  the  nest  boxes.  The  hens, 
being  in  the  scratching  pen,  enter  the  nests  from  that  side.  The 
doors,  D,  being  separate  for  each  nest,  made  of  lx3-inch  pieces  into 
a  square  frame  and  covered  with  fine  netting,  are  hinged  at  the 
bottom  and  kept  closed  by  a  wooden  button,  except  v/hen  gathering 
the  eggs  from  the  alley.  When  a  hen  becomes  broody  she  is  given 
her  complement  of  eggs  in  the  nest  she  has  selected,  and  trespassers 
are  kept  from  troubling  her  by  hanging  on  the  hook  F  a  lattice  door 
made  of  pieces  of  lath.    The  door  D  is  then  left  open  ^nd  the  sitters 


HOMHMADB  POULTRY  DEVICES. 


151 


exercise  in  the  alley  where  food  and  water  are  at  hand.  We  hatched 
over  three  hundred  chicks  here  last  Spring  and  the  plan  worked 
beautifully."  w.  h.  fisher. 

Ohio. 

THE  TRAP  NEST. 
It   is   generally   conceded   that   trap-nesting   is   too   expensive    a 
plan  of  selection  for  the  average  poultryman  to  use.     On  page  95 


««.»^,^ 


...^ I 


Ate^r 


-A« 


TRAP  NEST  OPEN.    Fig.  48. 

Prof.  Rice  states  that  it  costs  about  50  cents  to  trap-nest  a  hen 
for  a  year  and  keep  the  necessary  records.  For  the  convenience 
of  those  who  wish  to  try  the  experiment  the  accompanying  illus- 
trations and   notes  by  a  practical   poultryman   are   given : 


NEST 


I 


rl  %:^ 


TRAP  NEST  SHUT.    FiG.  49. 

"The  accompanying  designs  show  a  trap  nest  of  my  invention, 
closed  and  open.  Both  cuts  show  a  side  view  of  the  device.  The 
nest  proper  is  in  an  outer  box.  This  outer  box  may  slide  like  a 
drawer  at  under  side  of  droppings  board.  The  outer  box  may  be 
without  bottom,  thus  saving  lumber.  Fig.  48  shows  trap  A  open. 
As  the  hen  steps  in  at  B  her  weight  closes  the  trap  A.     C  is  a 


152  THH  BUSINESS  HBN. 

catch  or  button  that  automatically  operates  when  trap  closes  and 
locks  trap.  D.  D,  D.  are  half-round  hardwood  mouldings,  fastened 
across  trap  and  rear  end  of  nest  which  revolve  in  half-inch  holes 
in  outer  box  at  F.  F.  E  is  a  moulding  across  trap  and  projecting 
enough  to  strike  against  sides  of  outer  box,  preventing  trap  from 
closing  too  far  in.  The  shoulders  of  this  moulding  E,  as  also 
shoulders  of  catch  C,  may  be  provided  with  a  piece  of  felt  or 
rubber,  to  lessen  the  noise  of  closing  trap.  Dimensions  may  vary 
with  size  of  fowls.  Inside  of  nest  may  be  about  11x11  inches  and 
four  inches  high.  The  device  is  very  easily  operated.  A  weight  of 
2%  pounds  at  B,  easily  closes  trap.  After  the  hen  has  laid,  she 
v;ill  put  her  head  through  a  hole  that  is  cut  at  each  G.  G.  After 
Ggg  is  deposited,  the  hen  has  sufficient  room  in  front  of  nest  to 
keep  nest  from  fouling.  Excepting  nails,  there  is  no  hardware 
about  this  device,  as  strap  in  which  catch  C  plays,  may  be  wood." 

MOVABLE    POULTRY    YARDS. 

The  essential  features  in  poultry  keeping  are  clean  quarters, 
grass  and  exercise;  coops  that  are  easy  to  clean,  easy  to  feed  and 
not  expensive  to  make.  After  many  years  of  study  and  experiment 
with  all  the  different  kinds  of  poultry  houses  I  find  the  following  plan 
is  the  simplest  and  by  far  the  best,  except  in  the  snowy  period  of 
Winter,  when  the  birds  and  yards  can  be  placed  in  an  open  shed 
facing  south.  The  yards  are  built  in  sections  four  feet  wide,  two  feet 
high  and  16  feet  long.     Fig.  50  shows  the  plan. 

One  or  20  sections  can  be  placed  end  to  end  and  the  length  of 
the  yard  is  only  limited  by  your  boundary  or  whatever  else  there  is 
to  restrict  you,  A  grass  and  clover  field  is  the  best,  but  when  I 
started  my  yards  they  were  on  corn  stubble  and  a  fine  grassy  yard 
has  grown  without  seeding  in  two  years.  The  materials  are  kept  in 
all  lumber  yards.  Six  arbor  laths  1x2x16  white  pine  finished  and 
free  from  knots  and  other  weak  spots,  cost  about  25  cents  each, 
will  make  the  frame.  The  sides,  ends  and  top  can  be  made  up  of 
plaster  laths  nailed  one  inch  apart  for  small  chickens  and  1%  to  two 
inches  for  adult  fowls.  Porch  lattice  strips  are  neater,  better  and  a 
little  more  expensive,  but  if  painted  would  make  a  neater  appear- 
ance and  be  more  lasting.  The  end  section  should  be  closed  at  the 
ends  with  a  sliding  door  to  shut  all  birds  in  when  moving  yards; 
intermediate  sections  are  braced  on  the  ends  and  left  open  otherwise. 

The  top  of  each  section  should  have  four  feet  closed  with  light 
lumber  or  a  sheet  of  galvanized  iron  which  will  furnish  shade  for 
the  fowls  on  warm  days.  For  brooder  yards  these  sections  should 
have  the  whole  top  covered  with  galvanized  iron  or  light  lumber  and 


HOMBMADB  POULTRY  DEVICES. 


153 


it  will  save  much  loss  from  sudden  showers,  but  make  them  light 
enough  to  move  easily.  The  roosting  room  should  be  four  feet 
square  and  two  feet  high  with  two  roosts  and  open  at  the  top  like  a 
box.  These  coops  are  easy  to  move  by  just  dragging  them  along. 
They  will  hold  12  or  14  Leghorns  and  have  roosting  coops  enough 
to  accommodate  your  flock.  Laying  houses  are  the  same  size  v/ith 
four  nests  on  each  side  opened  at  the  top.  These  houses  should  be 
closed  at  the  evening  feeding  time  to  stop  birds  from  roosting  in 
the  house  or  nests.  Dry  mash  hoppers  are  kept  in  another  house  of 
the  same  pattern  and  each  house  should  have  one  or  more  sections 
between  them. 

These  yards  make  ideal  Leghorn  yards  (they  are  always  in  their 
own  place  and  not  scratching  at  your  neighbor's  garden),  which  is 
their  greatest  recommendation.  I  am  a  trucker  and  my  neighbor's 
chickens   do   me  more  harm  than   all  the  bugs.     Each  morning  a 


MOVABLE  POULTRY  YARD.    Fig.  50. 


little  grain  is  thrown  in  the  end  section,  and  when  all  the  birds  are 
in  close  the  slide  and  then  move  each  section  over  sideways  till  all 
are  on  the  clean  grass,  then  move  the  end  section,  birds  and  all, 
taking  care  not  to  pinch  their  toes,  but  they  are  usually  too  eager 
for  the  new  grass  to  get  their  toes  pinched. 

Roosting  houses  should  have  no  bottom.  Laying  houses  have 
only  wire  netting  on  bottom  of  the  nests  to  keep  in  the  straw  when 
moving  the  house.  The  dry  mash  feeding  house  should  have  a 
wood  floor.  Water,  grit,  shells  and  charcoal  can  be  kept  in  tomato 
cans  or  lard  pails  on  the  outside  of  the  j^ards  where  the  birds  can 
reach  them  easily  by  putting  their  heads  through  the  slatted  sides  of 
the  yards,  and  the  feeder  can  see  at  a  glance  if  each  pail  is  full. 
The  water,  grit,  etc.,  will  always  be  free  from  droppings,  which  is 
never  the  case  when  these  utensils  are  kept  inside  a  poultry  house. 
The  ground  will  have  grown  up  to  grass  in  about  two  weeks'  time 
when  you  can  move  the  yards  back  to  their  original  place  and  move 
over  daily,  a  task  that  will  but  take  about  two  minutes  per  section, 


CHAPTER    XVII. 
POULTRY   IN   LARGE  FLOCKS. 

The  "colony  plan"  of  poultry  keeping,  that  is  small  houses  scat- 
tered over  a  wide  area,  has  its  advantages  and  its  drawbacks.  So 
has  the  opposite  plan  of  crowding  large  flocks  of  birds  into  one 
building.  As  is  stated  in  the  following  chapter  by  Dr.  Buchanan 
Burr,  the  plan  of  feeding  a  "dry  mash"  has  given  renewed  opportunity 
for  large  flock  feeding.  The  statement  which  follows  tells  how  it 
is  done.  : 

As  the  object  of  most  persons  who  engage  in  poultry  raising  is 
to  have  a  flock  large  enough  to  support  the  owner,  and  as  most  fail- 
ures in  the  business  arise  from  ignorance  as  to  how  to  enlarge  the 
successful  small  plant,  this  chapter  will  endeavor  to  take  the  poultry- 
man  or  poultrywoman  who  has  arrived  at  this  point  safely  over  this 
bridge.  Assuming  as  the  basis  of  this  chapter  that  1,000  laying  hens 
are  needed  to  support  the  owner,  it  will  be  at  once  apparent  that  to 
raise  the  3,000  chicks  yearly  to  keep  up  this  number  of  healthy  well- 
developed  egg  machines,  fireless  brooders,  lamp  brooders,  colony 
brooders  are  out  of  the  question,  and  we  are  forced  by  every  reason 
of  economy  and  sanitation  to  build  a  proper  brooder  house  with 
heater  and  pipe  system. 

BROODING  IN  LARGE  FLOCKS.— The  pipe  system  brooder 
house  fell  into  disrepute  some  years  ago  for  two  reasons;  first 
because  the  pipes  were  put  too  low  over  the  chicks,  and  second,  the 
heat  was  not  run  high  enough.  With  four  l^^-inch  pipes  from  13 
inches  to  14  inches  from  floor,  run  at  a  temperature  on  your  heater 
thermometer  of  120°  to  140°,  the  chicks  will  not  only  never  feel 
chilled  but  will  be  forced  apart  and  found  lying  comfortably  along 
the  edge  of  the  flannel  curtain  which  comes  to  within  two  inches  of 
the  floor.  The  roof  is  the  most  expensive  part  of  the  building.  My 
own  preference  is  for  a  two-story  brooder  house  21  feet  wide  by  any 
length  needed  to  supply  the  necessities  of  the  plant.  This  makes  a 
double  house  facing  east  and  west,  with  pens  three  feet  wide  upstairs 
and  four  feet  wide  downstairs.  The  baby  chicks  are  taken  to  the 
upstairs  pens,  not  more  than  50  in  a  pen,  for  10  days.  Then  they  are 
sorted  by  size,  and  all  defective  ones  killed,  and  the  others  taken  to 
the  larger   downstairs  pens,   where  they  have  outdoor  runs.     The 


POULTRY  IN  LARGB  FLOCKS. 


155 


water  pans  for  all  pens  are,  upstairs,  63^xlJ^-inch  galvanized  iron 
or  agate  pans,  setting  one-third  in  passage  and  two-thirds  in  pen, 
the  pen  portion  being  covered  by  having  nailed  to  the  board  par- 
titions one  inch  above  the  hole  through  which  pan  is  pushed  into 
pen,  a  semi-circle  of  wood  two  inches  smaller  than  pan,  on  the 
edge  of  which  finish  nails  are  driven  one  inch  apart,  Fig.  51.  By 
this  arrangement  the  chicks  cannot  get  in  the  water  to  soil  it  and  a 
glance  at  each  pan  in  going  through  the  house  tells  where  water  -is 
needed.  The  pans  can  all  be  washed  daily  without  going  into  the 
pens.  For  the  downstairs  brooders  a  10x2^-inch  pan  can  be  used.  I 
find  it  a  great  advantage  to  cut  the  hole  high  enough  to  place  a  board 
under  the  pan,  coming  out  in  the  pen  about  three  inches  beyond  the 
pan.  This  keeps  the  pan  above  the  sand  and  litter  in  the  pen 
and  keeps  the  water  cleaner.  I  said  take  the  chicks  from  incubator 
as  soon  as  dry  to  these  pens,  but  they  are  not  to  be  fed  for  48  hours, 
so  in  front  of  the  flannel  curtains  in  each  hover  I  drop  a  board  six 


TZEDTROUGHS 


VVJTH  TURNED  IN 
SJQ£a 


SECTION  OF  HOUSE  INTERIOR.    FiG.  51. 


inches  wide  in  slots,  converting  the  hover  into  a  dark,  warm  pen 
with  clean,  fresh,  sharp  sand  on  the  floor,  and  there  they  stay  warm 
and  quiet  until  the  yolk  is  absorbed.  Then  the  front  board  is 
removed,  a  little  chick  feed  scattered  on  the  floor,  and  they  get  their 
first  feed  and  drink.  After  another  24  hours  the  back  board  is 
removed.  For  feeding  chicks  I  use  the"Burr"  chick  trough,  keeping 
mixed  grain  and  dry  mash  in  separate  troughs  before  them  all  the 
time.  For  small  chicks  a  trough  two  feet  long  and  12  inches  wide 
with  sides  three  inches  high  is  ample.  Take  a  12-inch  board  two 
feet  long  and  bevel  sides  and  ends  to  45°.  To  these  four  beveled 
sides  nail  half-inch  strips  three  inches  wide  and  you  will  have  a 
trough  as  shown  in  Fig.  54.  By  laying  this  trough  on  the  floor  and 
piling  the  sand  up  against  the  sides  and  ends  chicks  48  hours  old 
can  run  in  and  out  of  them  easily.  The  object  of  the  turned-in  sides 
is  to  prevent  the  chicks  scratching  feed  all  over  the  pens.  By  sifting 
out  with  a  flour  sieve  once  a  week,  all  the  sand  will  be  removed,  and 


156  THH  BUSINESS  HBN. 

with  a  coarser  sieve  all  the  manure,  and  the  feed  remains  always 
clean.  Once  in  two  weeks  the  mash  troughs  may  be  dumped  out 
and  the  contents  scattered  in  the  henyard,  where  it  is  eagerly 
scratched  over  and  eaten,  so  that  no  waste  occurs.  For  the  lower 
section  where  chicks  are  10  days  old  the  same  troughs  are  used, 
only  they  are  made  three  feet  long,  16  inches  wide  and  the  sides 
are  five  inches  high,  Fig.  55.  Chicks  of  this  age  will  scratch  feed 
out  of  the  sm.aller  troughs.  These  larger  troughs  are  also  used  in 
the  colony  houses  up  to  three  months  of  age,  when  they  are  replaced 
with  the  "Burr"  hen  trough.  By  this  system  of  feeding  chicks  are 
only  fed  once  a  day,  which  is  a  great  saving  of  labor,  and  there  is 
always  feed  for  strong  and  weak  with  no  danger  of  over-eating  or 
under- feeding.  Once  a  day  they  should  receive  green  feed,  in  Win- 
ter beets  run  through  a  meat  chopper  or  sprouted  oats,  with  a  quart 
of  swamp  muck  if  it  is  obtainable  to  each  pen  twice  a  week.  After 
they  are  a  week  old  a  hopper  of  beef  scrap  should  be  kept  filled  in 
each  pen  and  grit,  chick  shell  and  ground  bone  kept  before  them  all 
the  time.  The  dry  mash  used  for  chicks  is  the  same  as  used  for 
the  laying  hens  and  the  formula  will  be  given  later. 

The  great  objection  raised  against  the  brooder  house  and  in  favor 
of  the  colony  system  of  brooders  has  been  that  the  yards  will  get 
foul,  but  with  removable  fences,  fastened  to  the  houses  and  to  the 
end  posts  50  feet  away,  with  simple  L  posts  in  between,  all  these 
fences  can  be  taken  dovv^n  in  a  few  hours,  the  yards  limed,  plowed 
and  seeded  to  rape  and  fences  replaced.  After  chicks  are  all  out 
of  brooder  house  these  yards  may  be  plowed  again  and  seeded  to 
White  clover  and  lawn  grass  for  the  following  Spring.  With  this 
objection  removed,  there  is  no  comparison  either  in  economy  or  the 
health  of  chicks  raised  between  the  two  systems  up  to  six  weeks  of 
age,  when  your  April-hatched  layers  are  ready  to  be  put  in  colony 
houses,  without  heat,  where  they  will  remain  until  housed  in  laying 
houses  for  the  Winter. 

STARTING  A  FLOCK.— As  the  line  between  profit  and  loss  in 
a  large  poultry  plant  lies  between  100  and  145  eggs  per  hen  per  year, 
it  is  very  necessary  that  the  individuals  composing  this  flock  should 
each  be  healthy  and  to  all  appearance  able  to  hold  up  their  share  of 
the  load,  but  more  than  that,  the  owner  should  knovv^  that  the  ances- 
tors as  far  back  as  he  can  trace  them  have  been  Winter  layers  of 
large  eggs.  The  buying  of  day-old  chicks,  or  of  eggs  for  hatching, 
except  from  known  breeders  without  a  guarantee  that  they  are  from 
aged  hens  only  and  not  from  pullets'  eggs,  is  a  very  serious  source 
of  loss  and  disappointment.  The  safest  and  surest  way  is  to  raise 
or  buy  enough  yearling  or  two-year-old  hens.    These  hens  should  be 


'      POULTRY  IN  lARGH  FLOCKS.  157 

mated  to  healthy  cockerels,  say  in  February.  Hold  them  back  from 
laying  by  a  grain  diet  and  plenty  of  exercise  until  this  time.  Keep 
them  in  colony  houses  and  their  eggs  will  hatch  chicks  that  want  to 
live  and  that  when  they  mature  will  lay,  and  lay  when  eggs  are  high. 
After  your  first  year  the  close  culling  of  your  flock  of  yearlings 
will  give  better  and  better  breeders  each  year,  and  bred  to  cockerels 
each  year  there  is  no  danger  of  inbreeding.  Any  unusually  good 
cock  bird  can  be  kept  for  another  year  or  two  and  bred  to  a  special 
pen  of  the  best  hens  to  tone  up  the  grade  of  the  whole  flock. 

HOUSING  AND  FEEDING.— It  may  be  roughly  stated  that 
the  advent  of  dry  mash  before  the  hens  all  the  time  made  possible 
the  keeping  of  large  flocks  together.  Before  that  time  with  feeding 
three  times  a  day  the  active,  hustling  hen  got  more  than  her  share 
to  the  detriment  of  the  less  active  members  of  the  flock.  Under  pres- 
ent conditions  of  feeding  there  is  no  limit  to  the  size  of*  a  flock  that 
can  be  kept  profitably  except  the  element  of  labor.  As  2,000  hens 
can  be  easily  cared  for  by  one  man  and  kept  in  perfect  condition 
all  the  time,  so  in  a  complete  one-man  plant  1,000  hens  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  unit,  leaving  time  enough  for  incubator  and  brooder 
house  work.  It  is  of  course  an  advantage  where  the  farm  is  large 
enough  to  pay  to  keep  a  man  for  this  other  work  and  to  help  with  the 
rough  and  heavy  work  on  the  poultry  plant. 

My  own  preference  is  for  the  two-story  type  of  house  with  two 
short  roosts  on  each  side  of  a  central  passage  running  at  right 
angles  to  the  passage,  22  inches  apart  and  22  inches  from  the  floor, 
simple  2x2-inch  with  upper  corners  rounded,  five  feet  long  and  sup- 
ported on  three-eighths-inch  iron  rods  driven  into  floor  and  into  hole 
in  roost.  This  in  a  house  20  feet  wide  and  100  feet  long  gives  16 
roosts  between  four-foot  windows  on  each  side  of  house,  with  a 
passage  along  each  side  in  front  of  nest  boxes  on  the  wall.  These 
windows  being  4x5  feet,  with  upper  half  muslin  and  lower  half  glass, 
give  perfect  ventilation  Winter  and  Summer.  The  downstairs  part 
being  for  feeding  and  watering  and  exercise,  with  1,000  hens  in 
such  a  house  each  hen  has  four  square  feet,  but  in  reality  has  the 
freedom  of  4,000  square  feet,  except  that  occupied  by  the  other  999 
hens. 

A  much  less  expensive  house  of  the  regular  type  can  be  built  18 
feet  wide  and  100  feet  long,  4>^  feet  high  in  the  rear  and  6>1  feet  in 
front,  shed  roof  with  rear  wall  sheathed  to  plate,  and  roof  sheathed 
up  six  feet.  Droppings  boards  are  2^^  feet  from  floor,  four  roosts 
12  inches  from  droppings  boards.  The  front  of  this  house  could  be 
boarded  up  for  two  feet  from  the  bottom  and  a  foot  from  the  top, 
leaving  three   feet  that  could  be  closed    in    with    3x6-foot    screens 


158  THB  BUSINBSS  HBN. 

covered  with  unbleached  mushn,  with  a  3x2-foot  sash  in  between  each 
mushn  screen.  The  musHn  is  closed  on  stormy  days  only  and  at 
night  in  cold  weather.  Such  a  house  would  house  500  hens  com- 
fortably, where  a  two-story  house  of  the  same  size  would  hold  1,000. 
Either  house  should  be  faced  a  little  to  the  south  of  southeast,  as 
this  gives  the  most  sun  in  Winter  and  the  least  in  Summer.  Any 
laying  house  should  be  built  on  posts  with  a  grade  at  top  of  sill  of 
18  inches  above  the  average  natural  grade.  Fill  this  18  inches 
in  with  dry  dirt  to  top  of  sill.  This  makes  the  best  floor.  By  keep- 
ing this  dirt  loose  it  makes  all  the  dust  baths  necessary.  The  top  can 
be  raked  off  weekly  and  spread  on  the  droppings  boards.  It  will  be 
necessary  to  fill  in  about  six  inches  of  clear  dry  dirt  in  May  and  Sep- 
tember ;  thus  the  house  floor  is  renewed  and  never  becomes  foul.  If  it 
can  be  placed  in  a  field  with  say  150  feet  front  and  back  for  yards 
and  a  fence  running  from  each  end  to  make  a  front  and  back  yard, 
by  plowing  and  sowing  oats,  millet,  rape  and  Crimson  clover  in  rota- 
tion in  each  yard,  you  have  continuous  green  feed  from  March 
until  December,  which  is  both  healthy  and  economical.  Avoid  plant- 
ing fruit  trees  in  either  poultry  or  brooder  yards,  as  the  continuous 
plowing  necessary  for  health  will  ruin  the  trees  before  they  are 
large  enough  to  be  productive,  and  artificial  shade  is  much  better, 
the  cheapest  way  to  make  the  latter  being  to  tack  two-inch  mesh 
wire  on  a  frame  3x6  feet  and  nail  on  legs  one  foot  long  on  one 
side  and  18  inches  on  the  other.  Cover  with  burlap  or  building 
paper.  The  legs  can  be  knocked  off  in  the  Fall  and  the  screens 
stored  away.  A  crop  of  potatoes  or  corn  can  be  taken  alternately 
from  the  front  or  back  yards,  following  potatoes  with  rye  and  Crim- 
son clover,  and  planting  in  rape  and  rye  with  the  last  cultivation  of 
the  corn. 

FEEDING  FOR  WINTER  EGGS.— If  you  have  culled  out  500 
or  1,000  of  the  best  of  those  pullets  we  left  in  the  colony  houses 
last  May,  when  some  of  the  combs  begin  to  redden  the  last  of  Sep- 
tember, put  them  in  your  laying  house,  leave  them  shut  in  for  a 
few  days,  until  they  feel  at  home,  and  the  feeding  and  watering 
problem  now  presents  itself.  For  watering  a  large  flock  there  is 
nothing  as  convenient  as  one  or  more  10-foot  lengths  of  five-inch 
double-lipped  galvanized  iron  eaves  trough  or  gutter.  Have  the 
plumber  solder  in  two  sloping  ends,  and  near  one  end  a  piece  of 
^-inch  brass  pipe.  I  say  brass  pipe  because  it  is  even  enough  to 
have  a  cork  fit  tight,  whereas  the  galvanized  iron  pipe  will  leak. 
Take  two  pieces  of  board  three  inches  wide  and  the  length  of  your 
trough,  and  nail  to  two  square  end  pieces,  so  that  each  board  will 
fit  under  one  lip  of  trough  to   support  it.     Set  this   trough  on  a 


POULTRY  IN  LARGE  FLOCKS. 


159 


platform  high  enough  above  the  floor  to  get  a  pail  under  the  pipe 
to  empty  it  into,  and  build  a  running  board  on  each  side  of  it  for 
tne  hens  to  stand  on  when  drinking,  and  you  are  fixed.  In  Winter 
the  trough  can  be  emptied  at  night,  and  filled  through  the  day  at 
intervals  with  hot  water  to  keep  ice  melted.  Put  the  pail  under 
the  pipe,  remove  cork  and  brush  out  trough  with  a  sink  brush  and 
it  is  clean. 

The  object  to  be  attained  by  feeding  these  hens  is  to  keep  them 
healthy,  make  them  eat  egg-making  food  and  drink  clean  water,  so 
as  to  produce  the  most  clean  eggs  with  high-colored  yolks,  and  no 
bad  smell  or  flavor.  If  left  to  herself  she  would  much  rather  spend 
her  time  scratching  in  a  manure  pile  or  old  wood  pile  for  a  bug  or 
two,  eat  turnips  or  onions,  and  not  lay  any  more  than  she  had  to 
until  Spring.  While  the  man  does  not  live  who  can  make  a  hen 
lay,  you  can  so  feed  her  in  the  Fall  that  there  is  a  super-supply  of 
protein,   fat   and   mineral   matter  that  will,   against  her  inclination, 


THE  BURR  HEN  TROUGH.    Fig.  52. 

go  to  the  development  of  the  embryonic  ovules,  and  as  they  grow 
they  cause  a  drain  on  her  system  which  she  locates  as  hunger,  and 
supplies,  hence  Winter  eggs.  This  can  only  be  done  by  confining  her 
in  large  yards  and  not  letting  her  out  of  the  house  in  the  morning 
until  she  has  eaten  her  breakfast,  giving  food  she  is  fond  of  to 
encourage  her  to  eat  more  than  she  otherwise  would,  and  keeping 
such  a  mixture  before  her  as  will  develop  the  ovaries  and  the 
albumen  secreting  glands.  If  these  pullets  are  all  April  and  early 
May  hatched,  and  are  housed  by  October,  go  through  your  flock 
on  December  first  and  cull  out  any  immature,  undeveloped  pullet,  in 
fact  every  one  that  does  not  show  a  developed  comb,  and  sell  them 
for  roasters.  I  say  developed,  and  not  red  comb,  for  some  of  the 
April  pullets  that  laid  through  October  and  November  will  be  rest- 
ing now,  and  the  combs  will  not  be  so  red.  What  I  want  to  impress 
on  you  is  that  any  pullet  in  the  flock  that  does  not  look  like  laying 
on  this  date  will  be  carried  through  the  Winter  at  a  loss,  and  would 
better  be  disposed  of  now. 


160 


THE  BUSINESS  HBN. 


After  trying  all  the  hoppers  made  and  making  many  more,  I 
finally  hit  upon  what  is  known  as  the  "Burr"  trough  as  the  simplest 
and  most  economical   appliance  for  feeding. 

To  explain  Fig.  53,  if  you  take  two  pieces  of  half-inch  board 
six  inches  wide  and  eight  feet  long,  and  nail  them  together,  you  will 
get  a  V  trough  six  inches  wide  on  one  side  and  6^  inches  on  the 
other.  Take  another  piece  of  board  six  inches  wide  and  rip  it  in 
two,  one  piece  being  2^  inches  wide  and  the  other  3^4  inches.  Nail 
the  first  piece  on  the  inner  lip  of  the  wide  side,  and  the  latter  on  the 
top  edge  of  the  narrow  side,  and  you  have  your  trough;  nail  on  the 
ends  and  put  on  the  top.  The  hens  cannot  waste  any  feed  out  of  this 
trough,  cannot  soil  it,  and  yet  it  is  always  there  before  them.     Ten 


HOPPER  FOR  LITTLE  CHICKS 
Fig.  54. 


SECTION  OP 

BURR  TROUGH. 

Fig.  53. 


FOR  LARGER  CHICKS. 
Fig.  55. 


such  troughs,  half  for  grain  and  half  for  dry  mash,  are  enough  for 
1,000  hens,  and  need  be  filled  only  once  a  day.  Of  course  the  grain 
ration  before  them  all  the  time  applies  only  to  Leghorns,  who  can- 
not over-eat.  With  the  heavier  breeds  the  mash  may  be  kept  before 
them  all  the  time,  and  the  grain  fed  in  litter  night  and  morning. 
Even  with  the  heavier  breeds,  grain  troughs  that  can  be  closed 
except  at  supper  time  are  an  advantage,  as  v^here  all  grain  is  fed  in 
litter  many  hens  go  to  bed  without  enough  supper,  which  means 
less  eggs. 

For  the  grain  ration  almost  any  mixture  of  wheat,  cracked 
corn,  with  some  buckwheat  during  Winter,  will  do.  Watch  the 
troughs  and  mix  your  grain  to  suit  the  hens'  appetite,  using  more 
pf  one  or  the  other  grain  as  they  eat  theiri  more  eagerly.     For  the 


POULTRY  IN  LARGE  FLOCKS.  161 

mash  I  use  as  a  standard:  200  pounds  bran,  100  pounds  ground 
oats  or  barley,  200  pounds  coarse  cornmeal,  100  pounds  shredded 
wheat  (waste),  100  pounds  middhngs,  100  pounds  best  beef  scrap 
(with  some  bone  in  it),  if  not  add  25  pounds  granulated  bone,  100 
pounds  clean  sifted  charcoal  (granulated),  no  dust,  25  pounds  salt. 
Vary  this  by  adding  in  Summer  50  pounds  oil  meal.  This  mash  is 
kept  before  them  all  the  time.  Sprouted  oats  are  fed  once  a  day, 
all  they  will  eat  up  readily,  or  alternately  with  mangels  or  sugar 
beets  run  through  a  meat  cutter.  These  they  eat  greedily,  and  where 
green  bone  cannot  be  obtained  I  mix  25  pounds  of  beef  scrap  with 
100  pounds  of  ground  beets  and  feed  it.  The  sprouted  oats  and 
beets  should  be  fed  in  flat  troughs  six  feet  long,  12  inches  wide,«with 
three-inch  sides;  these  when  not  in  use  can  be  hung  c  p.  Of  course 
there  is  no  egg-making  food  that  can  compare  with  green  bone  as 
a  maker  of  Winter  eggs,  and  if  it  can  be  obtained  even  at  three  cents 
per  pound  cut  it  is  worth  it.  Feed  every  other  day  up  to  one  pound 
for  every  30  hens,  and  reduce  the  percentage  of  beef  scrap  in  the 
mixture  by  one  half.  As  the  markets  require  in  Winter  eggs  a 
high-colored  yolk  it  is  necessary  to  feed  three  tim.es  a  week  cut 
dry  clover  or  Alfalfa.  While  sprouted  oats  will  help  it  is  very  much 
cheaper  to  produce  this  color  with  clover  or  Alfalfa,  which  they  eat 
greedily.  Too  much  clover  or  Alfalfa  will  cut  down  yo  r  egg  yield, 
as  they  will  eat  too  much  of  it  in  place  of  more  nutritious  food. 
With  dry  airy  houses,  cleaned  daily,  with  plenty  of  dry  dirt  on  the 
floors  for  absorbent  and  dust  baths,  with  roosts  and  nest  boxes  gone 
over  carefully  twice  a  year  with  crude  petroleum  and  any  coal-tar 
insecticide,  with  this  system  of  feeding  only  sweet  clean  grain, 
there  can  be  no  question  of  your  success,  if  you  like  hens,  and  if 
you  do  not  you  would  better  leave  them  alone,  for  they  have  very 
pronounced  ideas  of  their  own,  and  while  if  they  trust  you  you  can 
coax  them,  you  can  never  drive  them,  and  a  scared  hen  in  a  large 
flock  tells  her  story  in  the  Qgg  basket  for  several  days. 

The  best  cure  for  all  poultry  diseases  is  the  ax,  and  burn  the 
remains.  Much  trouble  is  caused  by  curing(?)  mild  cases  of  roup 
or  canker  and  using  these  birds  for  breeders.  It  will  take  years  to 
eradicate  a  taint  thus  bred  in.  There  is  much,  however,  that  can  be 
done  in  the  way  of  prevention.  By  breeding  only  from  healthy 
mature  stock,  by  proper  hatching  and  good  brooding  the  chick  gets  a 
living  start.  White  diarrhoea  can  be  absolutely  prevented  by  this 
means,  by  thorough  sterilizing  of  the  incubators  after  each  hatch, 
and  in  cases  where  there  is  any  suspicion  of  tuberculosis  in  the  flock, 
by  dipping  the  eggs  for  hatching  in  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate 
pne  part  to  5,000  of  water.     All  breeding  hens  should  be  carefully 


162  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

examined  before  putting  them  in  the  mating  pens,  as  I  have  found 
some  of  the  best  hens  to  look  at  infected  with  canker  of  the  vent 
which  would  infect  every  egg.  Some  apparently  healthy  hens  have 
at  all  times  a  strong  roupy  smell  at  the  nostrils  and  should  be  killed 
at  once  as,  while  immune  themselves,  they  scatter  roup  germs  which 
are  taken  up  and  develop  in  the  other  hens  who  are  not  immune.  In 
every  normal  hatch  there  will  be  a  few  chicks  that  do  not  properly 
absorb  the  yolk.  They  drag  along,  usually  showing  some  signs  of 
indigestion ;  an  examination  of  the  abdomen  shows  a  hard  lump  in 
addition  to  the  gizzard.  Kill  them  at  once  as  they  drag  along  and 
cost  more  to  m.ake  broilers  of  even  than  they  are  worth.  If  the 
brooder  conditions  are  not  correct  and  chicks  get  chilled  and  huddle, 
the  flock  will  show  in  a  few  days  all  the  appearance  of  white 
diarrhoea;  they  mope,  drop  their  wings  and  huddle  together.  The 
only  thing  to  do  is  to  separate  the  healthy  ones  and  kill  off  all  moping 
chicks.  When  chicks  learn  that  they  can  get  warm  by  crowding, 
the  whole  flock  is  doomed;  therefore  keep  up  high  temperatures  in 
your  brooder  pipes  so  that  as  they  snuggle  together  at  bedtime,  as 
they  always  will,  the  heat  will  be  uncomfortable,  and  before  the 
crowding  can  do  any  harm  the  flock  separates  for  the  night.  Watch 
every  flock  at  bedtime  and  prevent  any  settling  in  corners,  as  they 
will  always  go  back  to  the  spot  they  first  settled  in.  This  is  also 
another  reason  why  flocks  should  never  be  more  than  50  when 
young,  as  the  animal  heat  of  a  larger  number  will  overheat  some, 
and  an  overheated  chick  is  doomed.  With  chicks  normally  hatched 
and  brooded  there  is  but  one  other  serious  trouble  that  can  occur. 
For  want  of  a  better  term  I  call  it  secondary  bacterial  infection. 
Unless  the  yards  are  disinfected,  spaded  up  and  seeded,  after  the 
first  lot  have  been  removed  to  the  colony  houses,  the  next  lot  getting 
out  on  the  foul  yards  will,  especially  during  a  hot  day  following  a 
cold  rainy  spell,  eat  everything  they  can  scratch  up  and  become 
infected  with  bacteria,  and  die  like  flies.  The  intestines  will  be 
filled  with  blood  from  infection,  and  unless  you  recognize  the  con- 
dition you  will  think  some  one  has  poisoned  the  flock.  There  is  no 
cure ;  prevention  is  all ;  recognize  the  danger  ahead  and  prevent  it. 
In  feeding  lawn  clippings,  and  they  are  excellent  feed  for  hens  and 
chicks,  be  sure  that  the  fruit  trees  are  not  being  sprayed  with  some 
arsenical  preparation  or  trouble  will  ensue.  Good  healthy  stock,  with 
clean  water,  fresh  air,  clean  feed,  using  the  same  horse  sense  in 
caring  for  them  that  you  would  in  any  other  business,  and  there  is  no 
mystery  or  secret  about  the  raising  of  poultry  in  large  numbers. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 
COMPANIONS  OF  THE  HEN. 

DUCKS. — We  do  not  offer  advice  to  the  extensive  duck  raiser 
who  keeps  birds  by  the  thousand,  but  to  the  farmer  who  keeps  a 
flock  of  reasonable  size.  If  a  man  intend  to  make  duck  raising  a 
specialty,  he  should  go  to  some  large  duck  ranch  and  study  the 
business.  The  principal  breeds  are  Pekin,  Rouen,  Cayuga,  Muscovy, 
Aylesbury  and  Indian  Runner.  The  Pekin  is  the  most  popular  bre ;  I, 
and  is  usually  kept  by  farmers.  The  Indian  Runner  is  the  best 
laying  duck,  ranking  with  the  Leghorn  among  hens  as  an  egg  pro- 
ducer. Ducks  are  usually  hatched  in  incubators  or  under  hens.  For 
the  first  few  days  they  are  fed  much  like  young  turkeys,  on  bread 
crumbs  and  boiled  eggs  or  rolled  oats.  After  five  days  sand  or  gravel 
is  added  to  the  food,  and  gradually  meal  and  bran  are  substituted 
for  egg  and  bread — with  later  beef  scraps,  salt  and  abundance  of 
chopped  green  food.  Ducks  need  shade — an  orchard  makes  a  g3od 
place  for  them.  Breeders  should  have  a  place  to  swim,  but  fattening 
ducks  should  be  kept  from  the  water.  Mr.  G.  A.  McFetridge  tells 
how  ducks  are  handled  on  a  large  duck  ranch.  With  proper  modi- 
fication this  plan  will  answer  on  a  farm. 

"Anyone  who  wishes  to  succeed  at  raising  much  have  his  ducks 
in  market  at  the  age  of  10  weeks.  At  that  age  they  should,  if  prop- 
erly cared  for,  average  at  least  five  pounds  apiece.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  pick  out  your  stock  ducks,  at  the  same  time  (10  weeks) 
selecting  the  finest  shaped  and  active  ones.  Arrange  to  have  the 
males  at  least  one  month  older  than  the  females,  and  keep  them 
separate.  Give  them  a  stronger  feed,  with  about  five  per  cent  scrap; 
they  will  require  it.  With  the  females  it  is  different,  for  they  do  not 
need  a  strong  feed,  but  a  light  bulky  feed.  If  they  are  picked  out  in 
May  at  the  age  of  10  weeks  and  fed  on  strong  feed  they  will  start 
to  lay  in  September,  which  is  too  early;  the  mJddle  of  November 
is  about  right.  A  good  feed  for  them  is  something  like  this :  By 
measure,  four  parts  of  bran,  four  of  middling  or  red  dog,  one  of  corn 
chop,  one-half  part  sand,  and  one-third  of  the  whole  amount  of 
some  kind  of  filler.  Use  what  is  at  hand,  almost  any  green  vegetable, 
second  crop  clover  and  Alfalfa.  This  mixture  makes  a  good  light 
feed,  and  if  fed  properly  will  give  good  results  at  this  time  when 
muscle-forming  is  the  main  object. 


164  THE  BUSINESS  HEM. 

"By  all  means  get  them  on  a  clover  plot,  keep  visitors  out  and 
keep  them  quiet.  In  case  a  clover  plot  is  not  obtainable,  then  man- 
age to  get  some  kind  of  greens  for  them  to  pick  at ;  it  will  aid  diges- 
tion. Supposing  they  are  selected  by  the  20th  of  May,  then  they 
are  fed  the  above  feed  judiciously  up  to  September  20,  then  use 
the  same  kind  of  mixture,  but  give  them  all  they  can  get  away  with, 
being  careful  not  to  overdo  them,  and  you  will  find  by  October  20 
they  will  be  shed  pretty  well.  The  drakes,  of  course,  are  in  a  sep- 
arate yard,  and  can  be  fed  more  corn  chop  and  about  10  per  cent 
beef  scrap  after  September  20. 

"Suppose  they  have  shed  all  their  feathers,  wings  and  tails,  as 
they  will  by  October  20,  and  their  Winter  quarters  are  all  in  shape, 
then  comes  the  mating.  To  every  five  ducks  put  one  drake;  you 
can  put  20  ducks  and  four  drakes  together  safely,  although  I  have 
seen  good  results  when  mated  up  to  150  in  each  yard.  I  find  it  to 
be  a  good  plan  to  keep  some  extra  drakes  at  the  start  and  distribute 
them  among  the  rest;  then  by  keeping  track  of  your  yards  you  may 
find  one  or  more  yards  that  fail  in  fertility;  a  change  of  drakes 
will  be  all  that  is  required.  After  mating  them,  a  more  substanti'il 
food  can  be  fed,  as  follows :  By  measure,  two  parts  bran,  four  parts 
middlings,  two  parts  corn  chop,  four  parts  whole  corn,  four  parts 
cut  second  crop  clover,  one  part  sand,  one-half  part  oyster  shell,  10 
per  cent  of  beef  scrap  (not  counting  clover).  You  will  notice  that 
they  will  not  eat  near  so  much  of  that  feed  as  they  do  when  fed 
the  former,  but  it  is  a  great  egg  output  by  increasing  or  diminishing 
the  whole  corn  and  beef  scrap." 

TURKEYS. — Many  hen  men  and  women  have  an  ambition  to 
keep  a  few  turkeys.  In  northern  New  York  or  in  some  other  locali- 
ties turkey  raising  on  a  large  scale  is  carried  on  with  much  success. 
The  turkeys  have  a  wide  range,  and  on  the  clean,  wind-swept  hills 
are  healthy  and  strong.  In  such  places  the  business  is  often  profit- 
able, though  blackhead  and  other  diseases  sometimes  sweep  off  entire 
flocks.  Rhode  Island  was  once  a  famous  turkey  country,  but  black- 
head has  nearly  ruined  the  business  in  that  State.  These  large 
turkey  raisers  are  often  women,  who  seem  specially  adapted  to  hand- 
ling these  birds.  They  often  give  advice  to  beginners,  and  seem 
puzzled  to  find  that  there  is  any  great  trouble  about  making  the 
little  turks  live.  The  fact  is  that  until  one  gets  the  "instinct"  turkey 
raising  is  the  most  hazardous  kind  of  poultry  culture,  for  the  little 
things  will  persist  in  dying  in  spite  of  all  your  care.  Our  own  experi- 
ence as  beginners  may  help  others  to  start.  The  two  most  popular 
breeds  of  turkeys  are  Mammoth  Bronze  and  White  Holland.  The 
Bourbon  Red  is  popular  in  some  parts  of  the  West,  and  is  highly 


Companions  of  the  hen.  les 

praised  as  a  hardy,  handsome  bird  of  medium  size.  The  Bronze 
turkeys  are  larger  than  the  Whites,  but  we  chose  the  latter  because 
they  are  more  domestic  and  do  not  roam  away  as  the  Bronze  do. 
We  have  frequently  had  flocks  of  Bronze  travel  from  distant  points 
to  visit  our  Whites,  while  the  latter  have  never  failed  to  remain  at 
home.  This  is  a  good  feature  in  a  settled  country  v/Iiere  the  farms 
are  small,  for  in  such  situations  the  Bronze  birds  becom.e  a  nuisance 
to  the  neighbors. 

We  bought  a  trio  of  birds — the  gobbler  not  related  to  the  hens. 
Our  observation  is  that  this  a  surer  than  to  buy  eggs,  although  it 
may  seem  a  slow  way  to  start  with  but  two  hens.  The  children 
were  afraid  the  turkeys  would  freeze  when  they  insisted  on  flying 
into  the  trees  during  the  Winter,  but  it  is  their  nature  to  prefer  the 
outside  of  a  house.  We  drove*  them  inside  during  cold  storms, 
though  they  went  unwillingly.  They  were  fed  much  the  same  as 
the  hens,  but  they  were  cleaner  about  their  food  and  drink.  One 
reason  why  many  fail  with  turkeys  is  because  they  will  not  keep  the 
birds  dry  and  clean. 

Late  in  April  we  noticed  the  hens  looking  about  in  an  uneasy 
way,  and  wandering  further  from  the  house.  We  had  been  told  to 
let  them  find  their  own  nests,  but  to  tempt  them  if  possible  by  leaving 
barrels  and  boxes  with  clean  straw  near  the  henhouse.  This  failed  to 
tempt  them,  and  we  should  not  have  found  where  they  layed  but  for 
the  gobbler  who  waited  for  and  thus  betrayed  them..  One  hen 
climbed  to  the  loft  of  the  wood  shed  and  began  laying  on  a  board. 
The  eggs  would  have  rolled  off,  but  we  put  a  box  with  straw  on  the 
board  and  put  the  eggs  in  it.  The  foolish  bird  came  back,  accepted 
the  nest  and  kept  on  laying.  We  left  the  eggs  there  as  they  accum- 
ulated. The  other  hen  went  along  the  fence  by  the  side  of  a  tree 
and  made  her  nest  there  in  the  open.  We  kept  these  eggs  in  the 
house  until  the  hen  began  sitting  and  then  they  were  all  put  under 
her.  A  box  was  fitted  over  the  nest  so  as  to  give  shelter.  Between 
them  these  hens  laid  24  eggs  and  hatched  out  19  turks.  One  died  at 
once.  The  other  18  were  given  to  one  of  the  turkeys.  The  other, 
after  grieving  a  day  or  so,  mated  again  and  proceeded  to  lay  another 
clutch  of  about  a  dozen  eggs.  The  season  was  so  wet  and  unpromis- 
ing that  we  did  not  set  these  later  eggs. 

It  is  said  that  a  young  turk  will  die  if  it  run  against  a  wet 
blade  of  grass.  They  are  remarkably  tender,  and  wet  weather  usually 
melts  them  down.  We  were  also  told  that  they  would  die  if  kept 
in  a  coop.  A  neighbor  had  a  good  hatch,  but  the  young  birds  died 
rapidly.  They  seemed  to  become  tired  with  chasing  the  hen.  In  the 
morning  they  were  draggled  by  the  dew  and  fell  behind,  where  they 


166  THB  BUSINESS  HBN. 

were  captured  by  cats  or  chilled.  As  the  rain  continued  we  put  hen 
and  turks  in  a  large  coop,  and  kept  them  there  except  at  intervals 
when  the  sun  came  out.  Then  they  had  the  run  of  a  small  yard. 
For  feed  they  were  given  chopped  boiled  tgg  and  dry  bread  crumbs 
with  chopped  onion.  They  had  all  they  would  eat  clean  of  this  four 
times  a  day,  and  plenty  of  fresh  water  frequently  changed.  A  cake 
or  biscuit  made  of  horse  feed  (which  on  our  farm  is  a  ground  mix- 
ture of  cornmeal,  oats  and  wheat  bran)  crumbled  up  fine  was 
relished  by  the  turks.  The  old  hen  was  fed  a  quantity  of  cracked 
corn,  and  in  a  few  weeks  the  little  birds  began  to  eat  that  also. 
Rain  continued,  and  we  were  obliged  to  keep  the  turks  confined  in 
the  coops  until  the  latter  part  of  June.  We  did  not  expect  to  save 
any  of  them,  judging  from  the  advice  we  received  and  the  experi- 
ence of  neighbors  who  let  the  young  birds  run  with  the  old  hen 
through  the  wet  grass,  but  out  of  the  18  put  in  the  coop  15  were 
alive  in  July.  When  the  weather  turned  dry  we  let  them  follow 
the  old  hen  about  the  farm.  Cats  and  vermin  captured  several,  and 
others  died  from  various  causes,  and  we  ended  the  season  with  five 
turkeys.  This  may  seem  like  a  poor  record  if  we  judged  from  the 
stories  of  parties  who  claim  to  raise  every  turkey,  but  actual  experi- 
ence as  reported  to  us  shows  that  the  great  number  of  persons  who 
tried  to  raise  turkeys  on  a  small  scale  had  a  worse  record  even  than 
we  did.  Some  of  them  lost  every  bird,  while  others  raised  only 
one  or  two  from  a  flock  of  three  or  four  hens.  Turkey  raising  evi- 
dently requires  greater  care  than  chicken  culture,  and  it  appears  as 
if  printed  or  spoken  advice  is  of  little  help  in  learning  how  to  raise 
the  birds.  Personal  experience  alone  can  show  how  to  do  it.  We 
can  do  it  much  better  another  and  drier  season.  In  a  general  way 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  young  turkey  is  more  tender  than 
the  average  chicken.  It  is  cleaner  in  its  habits  and  requires  clean 
food  and  pure  water.  The  old  hens  do  not  show  good  judgment  in 
caring  for  the  turkeys,  but  will  lead  them  through  wet  grass  or 
upon  long  journeys  where  the  little  things  are  quickly  tired.  We 
should  be  careful  to  keep  them  in  coops  until  the  sun  has  thoroughly 
dried  the  grass  and  watch  the  hens  carefully  so  that  they  will  not 
wander  too  far  away. 

PIGEONS  AND  SQUABS.— We  would  not  advise  an  amateur 
to  expect  to  make  any  fortune  or  even  a  living  at  producing  squabs. 
Probably  as  much  money  has  been  lost  in  the  poultry  business  try- 
ing to  make  good  on  squab  breeding  as  in  any  other  department. 
The  stories  told  of  the  great  success  of  a  few  people  are  very 
plausible  and  have  led  many  unfortunate  men  and  women  on  to  loss 
and   disappointment.      Our   advice   would   be   to    start   with   a    few 


COMPANIONS  OF  THB  HBN  167 

pairs  of  pigeons  and  not  attempt  to  go  into  the  business  on  a  large 
scale  unless  experiments  with  a  few  pigeons  indicate  success.  It  is 
often  a  desirable  thing  to  have  a  few  pairs  of  pigeons  on  the  farm, 
as  squabs  make  delicate  food  for  invalids  and  there  is  nothing  bet- 
ter in  some  cases  of  sickness.  In  a  town  yard  these  squabs  can  be 
grown  to  advantage,  but  let  no  one  expect  to  plunge  into  the  busi- 
ness at  once  and  make  a  fortune  out  of  it.  Almost  any  room  that 
is  fairly  v/arm  can  be  fixed  up  for  pigeons.  You  must  have  a  good 
roof,  no  cracks  or  holes  in  the  sides  and  a  building  that  is  strictly 
rat  proof.  Rats  v/ill  clean  out  the  squabs  if  they  ever  get  a  taste  of 
them  and  can  get  near  them.  Allow  about  250  square  feet  of  floor 
space  for  each  50  pairs  of  pigeons. 

THE  GUINEA  FOWL.— There  are  two  distinct  varieties  of 
Guineas,  Pearl  and  White.  There  is  no  difference  in  their  character- 
istics save  in  their  color.  The  Pearl  variety  should  be  bluish-gray  in 
color,  each  feather  covered  with  white  spots  resembling  pearls, 
hence  its  name.  It  should  be  free  from  any  white  feathers  in  any 
part  of  the  plumage.  The  neck  is  covered  with  black  hairs  near  the 
head,  and  between  that  and  the  feathers  is  a  soft  down,  of  a  light 
brown  color,  that  glistens  in  the  sun.  On  the  top  of  the  head  is  a 
horny  spike  that  turns  backward.  The  bill  and  legs  are  brown.  The 
White  variety  should  be  a  pure  white  in  plumage,  with  a  yellow 
orange  or  yellowish-white  bill  and  legs,  this  being  the  only  difference 
between  them  and  the  Pearl  variety.  Some  birds  of  the  Pearl 
variety  have  white  feathers  in  the  breast  and  wings,  but  are  mon- 
grels, being  a  cross  between  the  tv/o  varieties.  They  are  great  forag- 
ers, and  will  pick  up  enough  bugs  and  injurious  insects  more  than 
to  pay  for  themselves.  They  do  not  stand  confinement  well,  and 
will  not  lay  more  than  one-half  as  many  eggs  as  if  allowed  to  run 
at  large.  If  fed  regularly  morning  and  night  they  will  always  be  on 
hand  for  their  share.  They  desire  to  roost  in  trees  near  the  barn 
at  night,  and  are  most  excellent  guards  either  night  or  day;  anything 
out  of  the  usual  astir,  they  will  set  up  a  great  cry.  They  roost  so 
high  that  they  are  out  of  the  way  of  thieves  or  wild  animals.  In 
their  wild  state  they  will  fight  and  drive  other  fov/ls,  but  if  used 
kindly  as  other  poultry,  they  v/ill  stay  and  feed  with  other  fowls 
without  shov/ing  much  of  this  pugnacious  habit.  The  Guinea  hen 
is  a  Spring  and  Summer  layer,  and  lays  from  90  to  120  eggs  yearly. 
They  like  a  secluded  place  to  lay  in.  When  their  nests  are  found, 
leave  two  or  three  eggs,  or  they  will  leave  the  nest  for  another  place. 
Better  set  their  eggs  under  hens  to  hatch,  as  the  Guinea  does  not 
sit  until  too  late  in  this  latitude  to  have  the  young  get  grown  before 
Winter.    Besides,  if  raised  by  common  hens,  they  can  be  taken  care 


168  THB  BUSINESS  HBN. 

of  better,  for  they  must  be  fed  often,  as  the  young  eat  but  little  at  a 
time.  Fifteen  to  17  eggs  can  be  set  under  a  good-sized  hen,  and 
with  good  care  all  can  be  raised.  Their  eggs  are  small,  but  make  up 
in  quality  what  is  lost  in  size.  Their  meat  is  excellent,  and  has  a 
gamy  flavor.  The  cocks  can  be  distinguished  by  their  screeching 
noise,  also  by  the  spike  on  their  heads  being  larger,  and  by  holding 
their  heads  higher.  Their  ear  tubes  are  larger,  and  generally  curl 
in  a  sort  of  semi-circle  toward  the  beak.  The  hens  make  a  noise 
that  sounds  like  "too  quick,"  and  seldom  screech. 

BANTAM  BREEDING.— "Bantams  need  but  little  room,  and 
little  feed.  They  are  very  attractive  and  useful,  not  merely  pets,  as 
they  are  good  layers  of  good-sized  and  rich  eggs.  I  have  used  an 
incubator  for  hatching,  but  prefer  hens.  If  I  have  Bantams  that  I 
can  spare  I  use  them,  but  usually  common  hens.  If  large  hens  are 
used  their  nests  should  be  in  a  low  box  six  inches  deep,  the  nest 
made  but  little  dishing,  as  the  eggs  will  move  more  readily  as  the 
hen  steps  among  them.  For  this  reason  the  fewer  eggs  under  a 
hen  the  better.  The  eggs  are  quite  as  likely  to  be  fertile  and 
hatch  as  any  larger  breeds.  A  box  should  be  placed  over  the  hen 
after  she  has  been  fed  and  watered  each  day.  This  not  only  secures 
her  from  being  disturbed,  but  prevents  her  from  coming  off  many 
times  a  day,  as  some  will,  each  time  endangering  the  eggs.  I  do  not 
find  the  chicks  quite  as  hardy  or  as  easy  to  raise  as  larger  breeds 
until  feathered.  They  feather  so  young  and  fast  that  they  need  good 
feed  and  care  at  this  time.  For  a  few  days  when  first  hatched,  hard- 
boiled  eggs  and  bread  crumbs  chopped  fine  are  best  for  them; 
later  cracked  wheat,  millet  and  ground  beef  scraps,  and  some  whole 
grain.  For  head  and  throat  lice  and  around  the  little  cluster  of 
feathers  in  front  of  the  ve'nt  use  a  little  grease.  Fresh  butter  is 
good;  sweet  cream  is  still  better,  and  will  not  injure  if  used  liberally 
on  turkeys  or  chickens.  This  will  do  little  good,  hov/ever,  if  the 
hen  has  lice.  This  season  I  have  taken  a  feather,  and  with  a  liquid 
lice  killer  touched  the  hen  under  and  above  in  many  places.  If 
this  is  done  in  the  morning  when  the  chicks  are  a  few  days  old,  and 
the  hen  in  an  open  coop,  so  the  chicks  can  get  plenty  of  air,  it  will 
not  hurt  them,  but  will  rid  both  hen  and  chicks  of  lice  for  a  long 
time." 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
A    BIG    FAMILY    OF    ROASTERS. 

One  of  the  most  successful  poultry  men  in  the  country  is 
Henry  D.  Smith,  of  Massachusetts.  Mr.  Smith  makes  a  specialty 
of  raising  roasters,  which  are  young  birds  large  enough  to  stuff 
and  r®ast.  He  started  in  a  very  modest  way  and  slowly  increased 
his  business  until  he  turned  off  from  5,000  to  7,000  roasters  each 
year.  This  required  400  hens,  and  Mr.  Smith  made  the  statement 
publicly  that  one  man  could  do  all  the  work  provided  he  had 
everything  fixed  properly.  When  we  asked  him  how  this  was 
possible  he  made  the  following  statement.  The  incubators  have 
a  capacity  of  about  3,000  eggs  and  the  brooder  houses  will  accom- 
modate from  2,500  to  3,000  little  chicks.  Of  these  about  1,800  will 
live  to  a  size  large  enough  to  enable  them  to  go  out  to  colony 
houses,  which  are  6x8  feet  and  which  will  hold  50  chicks.  Each 
house  has  a  feed  hopper,  a  box  for  scraps,  another  for  grit  and 
shells  and  a  water  vessel.     Here  is  Mr.  Smith's  programme : 

"Allowing  that  we  have  saved  a  few  cases  of  July  eggs  we 
will  now  lay  out  the  work  for  a  year,  beginning  August  1.  Get 
up  in  the  morning  at  six  o'clock,  feed  the  horse  and  the  hens  and 
turn  the  eggs  in  the  incubators  before  breakfast  is  ready.  Feeding 
the  hens  is  done  by  taking  sufficient  grain  in  a  bag  on  your  shoulder 
and  going  through  one  house  of  six  pens  and  back  through  another 
of  the  same  size,  and  scattering  said  grain  in  the  litter ;  then  take 
another  bag  with  a  dry  mash  and  go  through  again,  and  put  the 
necessary  amount  in  boxes  provided  for  the  purpose ;  time  for  both 
trips  25  minutes ;  then  turn  the  eggs,  which  will  take  from  two  to 
three  minutes  to  each  machine.  Eight  machines  will  be  sufficient 
at  the  most,  and  they  will  not  all  be  running  all  of  the  time.  The 
eggs  will  have  to  be  tested  tv/ice  to  each  hatch,  time  one  hour, 
and  another  hour  will  carry  out  a  hatch  of  chickens  and  reset 
the  machine,  which  takes  two  hours  to  each  machine,  setting  every 
three  weeks.  Clean  out  the  horse  stall  and  curry  the  horse,  when 
breakfast  should  be  ready.  The  water  barrel  should  be  placed  in 
the  farm  wagon  and  a  hose  led  to  it  from  the  water  system  and 
allowed  to  fill  while  some  of  the  above  chores  were  being  done, 
so  that  after  breakfast,  say  from  7.45  to  eight  o'clock,  you  harness 


170  THB  BUSINBSS  HHN. 

into  the  farm  wagon,  and  after  putting  on  what  grain,  scraps, 
grit  and  shells  you  will  need,  start  for  the  colony  houses,  which 
have  got  your  400  pullets  and  several  cockerels  for  the  coming 
season.  The  barrel  being  fitted  with  a  two-inch  molasses  faucet  it 
does  not  take  long  to  rinse  out  the  water  bucket  (using  a  little 
broom-corn  brush),  fill  it  and  replace;  then  put  in  some  grain, 
scraps,  grit  and  shells,  where  necessary.  Speak  to  the  horse  and 
pass  to  the  next  house  and  repeat,  finishing  each  house  on  the  one 
trip,  and  this  job  v/ill  be  all  done  by  nine  o'clock.  This  leaves 
three  hours  before  dinner  and  the  only  chore  at  noon  is  to  feed 
the  horse.  At  4.30  to  five  o'clock  you  will  go  through  the  hen 
houses  again  with  one  bag  of  grain  only,  and  pick  up  the  eggs, 
feed  the  horse,  turn  the  eggs  and  fill  and  trim  the  incubator  lamps. 
I  can  turn  the  eggs  and  take  care  of  the  lamps  to  the  eight  machines 
in  less  than  30  minutes,  so  that  you  will  be  ready  for  supper  before 
six  o'clock,  and  this  makes  not  over  10  hours  of  actual  labor  per 
day.  The  above  arrangement  leaves  six  hours  per  day  for  the 
next  three  weeks,  in  which  time  you  can  clean  out  the  brooder 
houses  if  you  have  not  already  done  so,  spread  on  the  grass  land 
and  fill  up  again  with  fresh  sand.  This  will  take  four  days,  and 
allowing  for  a  few  stormy  days  there  will  be  ample  time  to  clean 
out  and  fill  all  of  the  empty  colony  houses  before  the  brooder  will 
have  to  be  started,  also  to  clean  off  the  droppings  boards  once  a 
week  and  spray  the  roosts,  and  give  the  hens  some  green  stuff  at 
least  twice  a  week. 

"Now  we  will  start  one  of  the  brooder  houses  and  bring  what 
chicks  you  have  hatched,  and  until  you  have  more  than  one  house 
will  hold,  there  will  only  be  one  fire  to  attend  to,  and  the  pens,  as 
fast  as  you  are  able  to  fill  them  with  chicks.  We  will  have  the 
grain  room  between  the  two  brooders  and  to  feed  will  take  a 
bucket  of  mixed  grains  and  a  small  scoop ;  walk  right  along  throw- 
ing the  proper  amount  according  to  age,  number,  etc.,  all  over  the 
pen,  and  coming  back  pick  up  the  dead  ones,  then  take  another 
bucket  of  dry  mash  and  scraps.  Keep  moving  right  along,  throwing 
this  on  to  the  feed  board  placed  on  the  floor  just  beyond  the  pipes, 
so  the  feed  can  be  put  on  it  easily.  Then  take  a  bag  of  cut  clover 
and  go  up  through  the  pens,  this  time  putting  a  little  in  each  pen, 
and  opening  the  slides  for  the  chicks  to  go  out  of  doors  on  the 
same  trip.  If  your  partitions  are  too  high  to  walk  over  you  will 
have  to  have  self-closing  gates.  You  will  remember  that  these  are 
all  watered  automatically,  so  that  this  takes  care  of  the  brooder 
in  the  morning  excepting  shaking  down  the  fire  and  putting  on 
some  coal,  and  20  minutes  will  take  care  as  above  of  both  brooder 


A   BIG  FAMILY   OF  ROASTERS.  171 

houses,  2,500  to  3,000  chicks,  with  no  v^rorry  about  the  heat.  After 
all  of  the  morning  chores  are  done,  say  about  9,30,  come  back  to 
brooder  and  give  the  little  chicks  less  than  two  weeks  old  a  little 
grain  to  scratch  for,  and  sift  your  ashes,  putting  the  screenmgs 
back  into  the  heater;  time  15  minutes.  You  now  have  two  hours 
before  it  is  time  to  feed  the  two  kinds  of  grain  again  and  fix  the 
fire  at  noon,  and  there  are  three  hours  in  the  afternoon  before 
beginning  the  night  chores,  with  the  exception  of  about  five  min- 
utes at  2.30  to  feed  those  smallest  chicks,  and  about  twice  a  week 
give  them  a  little  grit  and  charcoal  in  boxes  for  the  purpose  within 
reach  of  the  walk.  Clean  out  under  the  pipes  about  three  times 
while  the  chicks  are  in  the  brooder,  time  two  hours  each  time,  and 
then  have  a  thorough  cleaning  between  each  lot;  time  refiUing 
and  all  20  hours. 

"PREPARING  FOR  WINTER— The  above  figures  are  based 
on  both  brooder  houses  being  full,  the  work  in  the  incubator  cellar 
begins  to  decrease  and  finally  stops  by  October  15,  so  that  there 
will  be  nearly  five  hours  daily  on  the  average  in  which  to  clean 
out  and  fill  up  the  balance  of  the  colony  houses,  clean  and  refill 
the  henhouses,  whitewash  (with  a  spray  pump)  and  make  the 
necessary  repairs  for  Winter,  and  haul  into  the  barn  cellar  or  some 
suitable  place  30  to  40  loads  of  sand  to  be  used  here  and  there 
during  the  Winter.  During  the  past  month  or  so  you  have  been 
selling  off  the  old  hens  as  fast  as  they  stop  laying,  and  crowding 
together  the  remaining  ones,  so  as  to  empty  the  pens  as  fast  as 
possible,  and  as  soon  as  ready  pick  your  most  forward  pullets  and 
put  into  these  pens.  As  soon  as  the  incubators  are  set  that  are 
required  to  fill  the  brooders,  sell  off  all  of  the  old  hens  and  put 
in  the  remainder  of  the  pullets  as  soon  as  you  can.  Then  as  soon 
as  the  chicks  in  the  brooder  are  feathered  out  enough,  say  eight 
to  nine  weeks  old,  they  go  out  to  the  colony  houses  and  as  soon 
as  you  see  that  one  of  the  brooders  will  be  empty,  cleaned  out 
and  refilled,  in  three  weeks  you  start  up  the  incubators  again,  this 
time  on  the  pullets'  eggs,  throwing  out  the  small  ones. 

*'We  will  now  begin  November  with  practically  all  of  the 
odd  jobs  cleaned  up.  The  incubators  are  getting  started  again  as 
fast  as  the  pullets  furnish  the  eggs,  and  the  youngest  chickens  in 
the  brooder  are  about  to  pass  the  delicate  age,  so  that  three  times 
daily  is  all  the  care  the  brooder  needs,  which  can  be  done  in  20 
minutes  each  time.  The  v/ork  in  the  brooder  now  decreases  about 
as  fast  as  it  increases  in  the  incubator  house,  and  the  care  of  the 
horse  and  hens  remains  about  the  same  the  year  round,  but  the 
work  in  the  colony  houses  is  gradually  increasing  all  the  time,  for 


172  THE  BUSINESS  HBN. 

by  the  last  of  November  you  will  have  nearly  all  of  the  first  lot  of 
chickens  (say  1,800  to  2,500)  out  in  the  colony  houses,  which 
means  about  1^  hour  as  soon  as  you  can  get  to  it.  The  morning 
chores  will  now  take  until  about  10  o'clock,  and  20  minutes  at 
noon,  with  lj4  hour  at  night,  will  leave  about  four  hours  per  day 
to  do  the  regular  chores,  and  this  gives  for  the  whole  month  about 
100  hours,  in  which  time  is  done  the  testing,  carrying  the  chicks 
to  brooder,  setting  machine,  cleaning  off  droppings  boards,  cleaning 
out  brooders,  refilling  with  sand  from  the  cellar,  etc.  Tile  work 
for  December  is  practically  the  same  as  November,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  caponizing.  By  the  first  of  January  the  brooder  house 
will  be  nearly  full  again,  if  not  quite,  with  the  incubators  about 
stopped,  so  that  in  January  while  there  is  a  little  m.ore  work  in 
the  brooder  there  is  less  in  the  incubator  house.  The  regular 
amount  of  work  remains  about  the  same  until  more  chickens  go 
out  to  the  colony  houses,  and  during  February  and  the  first  of 
March  the  remainder  of  the  colony  houses  v/ill  be  full,  and  as 
they  fill  the  brooder  grows  empty,  and  will  take  another  hour  per 
day  for  the  regular  work,  leaving  only  three  hours  per  day  for 
the  odd  jobs.  In  the  meantime  the  incubators  have  started  again 
for  the  last  time.  By  the  first  of  March  the  oldest  pullets  will 
begin  to  lay  and  must  be  sold,  and  the  second  lot  must  be  capon- 
ized.  The  brooder  is  being  filled  for  the  last  time,  so  that  by  April 
1  the  incubators  are  all  done.  The  brooder  house  is  full,  as  well  as 
the  colony  houses,  but  we  will  now  gladly  devote  two  or  three 
hours  per  week  to  selling  off  the  oldest  birds  as  fast  as  they  get 
"ripe."  As  soon  as  any  of  the  colony  houses  are  empty  they  are 
cleaned  out  thoroughly  and  refilled  again  with  chicks  from  the 
brooder  house. 

"VACATION  TIME.— By  the  middle  of  May  the  brooder  house 
is  empty  and  the  regular  chores  begin  to  decrease,  and  some  time 
in  June  the  caponizing  will  be  done,  leaving  just  the  hens  and 
colony  houses  to  see  to,  and  the  money  to  take  in.  The  brooder 
houses  may  nov/  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  refilled  ready  for  the 
next  season,  and  there  will  be  many  an  hour  between  now  and 
August  1  to  lie  in  the  shade  and  make  short  pleasure  trips,  or 
get  a  neighbor  to  do  the  few  chores  and  stay  away  awhile.  The 
number  of  chickens  raised  for  the  13  years  that  we  have  been  here 
is  about  as  follows :  700,  1,000,  1,200,  1,500,  2,000,  2,500,  3,000,  4,200, 
3,200,  4,200,  5,000,  5,100  and  5,200,  and  I  have  3,400  on  hand  now 
(January  25).  I  hope  and  expect  to  get  a  good  2,000  more  before 
this  season  is  gone." 


CHAPTER   XX. 

ALL  SORTS  OF  HEN  METHODS. 

We  have  said  that  a  true  hen  man  can  take  any  breed  and  evolve 
the  business  hen.  That  is  correct,  and  he  will  do  it  by  studying  the 
hen  and  adapting  her  whims  and  needs  to  his  conditions.  There  are 
hundreds  of  ways  of  keeping  hens.  The  methods  may  differ,  but  the 
foundation  principles  are  the  same,  viz.,  selecting  a  good  hen  and 
keeping  her  clean,  healthy,  contented  and  well  fed.  That  is  the 
entire  story.  The  majority  of  hen  failures  are  due  to  a  violation 
of  one  of  these  principles.  Sometimes  it  is  the  hen.  People  will 
persist  in  breeding  from  birds  which  they  know  do  not  lay  well  and 
which  have  been  lazy  scrubs  for  generations.  The  flock  is  inbred 
year  after  year  with  no  effort  to  select  the  best.  The  result  is  what 
you  might  expect  from  selecting  small  seed  potatoes  from  the  pile 
3^ear  after  year.  It  is  now  known  that  most  of  the  small  potatoes 
are  all  grown  by  certain  definite  hills.  If  you  keep  planting  these 
small  potatoes  you  will  grow  more  small  ones,  because  that  is  the 
habit  and  destiny  of  such  tubers.  When  you  pick  the  seed  out  of 
the  pile  where  all  have  been  thrown  together  you  never  know  what 
you  are  getting,  but  the  chances  favor  the  poorest  selection  you  could 
make.  When  you  select  the  best  hills  in  the  field,  and  use  that  seed, 
you  know  what  you  have,  and  are  breeding  for  improvement.  It  is 
just  the  same  with  hens.  A  man  who  wants  to  improve  his  birds 
should  get  an  ideal  hen  in  his  mind  and  hunt  through  his  flock  for 
it.  Pick  out  the  hens  which  come  up  to  this  ideal,  and  use  them 
for  breeders  with  the  best  male  bird  you  can  afford.  There  is  not  a 
farm  in  this  country  where  such  practice  could  not  be  followed  out, 
or  where  it  would  not  pay  better  than  any  ordinary  farm  operation. 
Mr.  Geo.  A.  Cosgrove  gives  sound  advice  to  a  would-be  farmer,  but 
he  does  not  tell  us  how  he  worked  out  this  theory  with  such  success. 
Mr.  Cosgrove  took  Wyandottes  and  followed  the  plan  outlined  above, 
selecting  the  hens  which  came  nearest  his  standard  of  what  a  busi- 
ness Wyandotte  ought  to  be.  As  a  result  he  finally  produced  a  bird 
which  attracted  attention — first  at  home,  then  through  the  State,  and 
finally  throughout  the  countrj^  The  same  thing  can  be  done  with 
any  breed,  or  one  can  start  with  a  flock  of  common  barnyard  scpubs 
and  by  selection  and  good  breeding  turn  out  a  uniform  flock  of 
hens  that  will  pay  twice  the  profit  the  old  ones  did. 


174  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

But  unless  this  superior  hen  is  healthy  and  contented  she  will 
not  pay.'  Contentment  in  a  hen  is  not  based  on  any  intellectual 
experience  but  on  comfort,  cleanliness  and  good  food.  Some  people 
have  a  curious  idea  of  what  a  "clean"  henhouse  is.  Lice  are  respon- 
sible for  more  failures  with  hens  than  those  who  make  the  failures 
will  admit.  The  man  who  can  stay  by  a  lousy  henhouse  until  it  is 
actually  clean  deserves  to  succeed  and  usually  will.  The  insects  are 
small  and  the  cracks  are  large,  and  every  hair's  breadth  must  be 
covered.  On  a  fruit  farm  where  lime-sulphur  is  used  for  killing 
the  scale  a  hen  man  can  hardly  do  better  than  soak  the  inside  of  the 
henhouses  with  this  odorous  mess.  The  profit  on  some  hen  farms  is 
largely  eaten  up  by  the  young  roosters  when  they  are  permitted  to 
run  at  large  with  the  flock.  These  birds  become  a  great  nuisance. 
They  should  be  separated  as  soon  as  possible,  shut  up  and  fattened 
rapidly  and  sold.  Let  them  all  go  except  the  few  needed  for  breeders. 
As  for  feeding,  probably  the  greatest  mistake  is  made  in  the  Fall  just 
after  cold  weather  starts  in.  At  this  time  the  hens  seldom  lay,  and 
are  profitless.  They  are  also  deprived  of  most  of  the  insects  and 
green  food  which  make  a  good  share  of  their  food  as  they  range 
about.  With  both  pullets  and  old  hens  there  will  be  a  "drought"  of 
eggs  for  at  least  60  or  75  days.  No  profit  can  be  expected  at  this 
time,  yet  these  hens  should  be  full  fed  in  the  most  careful  manner — 
just  as  an  athlete  should  be  fed  on  strong  food  through  the  weeks 
of  his  training.  These  hens  will  never  pay  if  they  are  scrimped  in 
their  food  during  the  Fall  and  early  Winter,  yet  the  temptation  is 
great  to  neglect  them  then ;  in  fact,  this  is  one  of  the  hardest  things 
for  the  beginner  to  learn.  It  will  help  to  have  a  good  flock  of  old 
Hens  and  fat  young  roosters  to  sell  at  this  time.  With  money  com- 
ing in  at  this  season  it  is  not  quite  so  hard  to  pay  money  out  for 
feeding  the  idle  hens.  During  the  Summer  the  idle  hens  may  be  left 
on  a  ration  that  will  merely  keep  them  going,  but  when  the  Fall 
comes  and  they  go  into  their  houses  stuff  them  with  good  food. 
These  principles  are  understood  by  all  successful  hen  men,  and  it  is 
interesting  to  see  how  they  are  applied  under  different  condition. 

A  hen  man  in  New  Jersey  has  a  small  place  on  which  he  grows 
vegetables  and  fruit.  There  is  not  enough  land  to  follow  the  colony 
plan  of  having  small  houses  scattered  over  a  large  field,  so  he  follows 
a  sort  of  hen  soiling  system.  The  hens  are  kept  in  small  flocks  of  a 
dozen  or  more — each  flock  in  a  small  house  with  a  light  yard  of  wire 
fence  panels  attached.  No  food  is  put  inside  the  house  or  yard,  but 
in  dishes  outside — the  hens  putting  their  heads  through  the  fence  to 
eat  and  drink.  Every  day  or  two  the  house  and  coop  are  pulled 
on  to  fresh  ground — usually  sod.    In  this  way  the  hens  are  always  on 


ALL   SORTS   OF  HBN  METHODS.  175 

clean  ground  and  always  have  good  pasture.  Many  coops  can  be 
kept  on  an  acre,  and  the  manure  is  deposited  evenly  over  the  field. 
Of  course  the  labor  of  changing  the  coops  must  be  considered,  but 
this  plan  is  well  suited  to  a  small  farm  where  the  land  is  needed  for 
fruit  or  vegetables.  You  can  easily  see  how  such  a  system  would 
fit  the  land  for  a  crop.  The  hens  will  tear  up  weeds,  burrow  in  the 
soil  and  leave  the  manure  behind  them.  They  are  clean  and  con- 
tented. 

So  they  are  in  a  California  fruit  orchard  where  much  the  same 
plan  is  followed.  In  this  case  the  houses  and  yards  are  on  runners, 
and  are  just  about  long  enough  to  stretch  from  tree  to  tree  in  the 
rows.  After  standing  for  a  few  days  in  one  place  they  are  hauled 
one  row  ahead  or  back  as  desired  by  hitching  a  horse  to  the  house. 
Thus  they  travel  back  and  forth  through  the  orchard,  working  the 
soil  and  leaving  the  manure  near  the  trees.  The  orchard  mentioned 
is  well  filled  with  these  movable  houses,  and  the  hens  give  a  good 
income  and  take  good  care  of  the  trees.  If  such  an  orchard  can  be 
seeded  to  rape  and  Crimson  clover  the  hens  will  get  one-third  of 
their  living  from  such  a  green  crop. 

In  great  contrast  with  this  is  the  way  a  farmer  in  North  Dakota 
winters  his  hens.  In  this  cold  country  the  hen  cannot  be  contented 
unless  she  be  kept  warm,  and  lumber  may  be  too  expensive  to  make 
the  business  henhouse  profitable.  So  this  farmer  puts  up  a  frame- 
work of  poles  and  throws  straw  around  and  over  it.  Straw  has  no 
commercial  value  out  there,  and  it  can  be  piled  on  four  feet  thick 
if  necessary.  A  door  and  windows  are  put  in,  and  the  hens  are 
literally  stacked  up  against  Winter  in  comfortable  quarters.  Such 
hens  when  well  fed  and  watered  do  well  inside  their  straw  houses, 
and  imagine  that  Summer  has  come  in  February.  These  stack 
houses  are  also  often  made  for  cattle.  The  cows  have  the  advantage 
of  the  hens  in  the  fact  that  they  can  and  do  turn  in  and  eat  up  their 
own  house  of  straw.  The  hens  cannot  do  this,  and  if  they  leave  the 
house  well  filled  with  vermin  it  is  an  easy  matter  in  that  country  to 
burn  down  the  old  house  and  build  another  like  it  the  next  season. 

Something  of  the  same  plan  is  followed  by  a  farmer  in  Virginia, 
near  the  opening  to  Chesapeake  Bay.  In  this  mild  climate  the  hens 
may  run  out  all  Winter.  Crimson  clover  is  seeded  in  late  Summer 
to  serve  as  pasture  for  them.  Little  houses  like  army  tents  are  made 
by  driving  in  poles  and  heaping  hay  or  straw  over  them.  The  hens 
live  in  these  little  houses  and  range  on  the  clover,  obtaining  a  good 
share  of  their  living  from  it,  and  giving  a  good  supply  of  Winter 
eggs  at  low  cost.  The  reverse  of  this  plan  was  followed  for  some 
years   by   Mr.   Hayward,   of   New   Hampshire.     He   also   had   little 


176  THn  B,USINBSS  HUN. 

tent-like  houses,  but  his  were  well  made  of  lumber,  with  solid  back, 
but  a  wire  screen  front.  Pullets  were  put  into  these  little  houses  in 
the  late  Fall  and  kept  there  without  removal  or  range  for  about  a 
year,  when  they  were  taken  out  and  sold  as  hens  to  make  room  for 
a  new  supply  of  pullets.  Mr.  Hayward  did  not  hatch  any  stock 
himself,  but  bought  young  birds  in  northern  Vermont  and  brought 
them  to  his  farm.  He  kept  5,000  or  more  of  these  hens,  and  made  a 
good  profit — buying  all  the  grain  and  puttjng  the  hen  manure  on 
an  apple  orchard.  The  contrast  between  this  plan  of  close  confine- 
ment and  the  Virginia  plan  of  free  range  on  green  clover  is  great, 
and  shows  how  the  business  hen  can  be  adapted  to  almost  any  con- 
ditions. 

This  plan  of  close  confinement  is  the  principle  employed  in  the 
so-called  Phiio  system.  The  idea  is  to  hatch  the  chicks  in  the  ordi- 
nary way  and  raise  them  in  a  "heatless  brooder;"  that  is,  a  box  so 
padded  and  protected  that  little  if  any  heat  will  escape.  Gentle 
ventilation  is  provided,  so  that  the  animal  heat  of  the  chicks  is 
retained,  and  this  is  sufficient  to  keep  them  warm.  Under  Philo's 
"system"  the  birds  are  kept  closely  confined  after  they  graduate  from 
this  heatless  brooder.  They  are  supposed  to  pass  their  entire  life 
in  a  cabinet  somewhat  smaller  than  a  piano  box.  Those  we  have 
seen  in  their  narrow  quarters  were  of  good  size,  but  seemed  listless 
and  dull.  The  plan  might  work  with  a.  few  hens  in  a  back  yard,  but 
we  do  not  consider  it  adapted  for  really  business  hen  keeping.  The 
so-called  "Corning"  system  is  largely  adapted  from  the  excellent 
methods  worked  out  at  the  Maine  Experiment  Station.  The  hens 
are  crowded  close  together  in  the  houses,  but  are  kept  clean  and  given 
good  food  and  care.  As  one  visitor  remarked,  "The  hens  are  packed 
so  close  that  they  seem  to  be  piled  up  in  heaps."  It  is  a  special 
method  of  forcing  hens  to  high  production,  but  it  remains  to  be  seen 
whether  this  heavy  forcing  will  give  chicks  strong  enough  to  keep 
up  the  vigor  of  the  stock.  The  egg  yield  is  said  to  be  heavy,  and 
high  prices  are  obtained,  in  some  cases  60  cents  or  more  per  dozen 
for  table  eggs.  It  is  claimed  that  with  these  high  prices  the  hens 
give  a  profit  of  over  $6  each.  While  such  "systems"  are  interesting 
as  showing  the  possibilities  of  poultry  keeping,  it  is  a  mistake  to 
present  them  as  if  anyone  could  follow  out  the  plan  and  obtain 
similar  results.  That  is  impossible — as  much  so  as  it  would  be  for 
an  average  man  to  take  the  place  of  a  great  lawyer  before  a  jury,  or 
for  an  untrained  clerk  to  step  right  into  a  blacksmith's  shop  and 
shoe  a  horse.  Let  it  be  clearly  understood  that  these  various  "sys- 
tems" all  have  some  merit,  but  that  the  chief  reason  why  they  are 
talked  about  is  not  to  benefit  mankind,  but  to  sell  the  "secret"  con- 


ALL  SORTS   OP  HUN  METHODS.  Ill 

nected  with  the  system,  and  usually  this  secret  has  been  talked  for 
years.  A  very  good  statement  of  many  principles  of  the  Corning 
system  is  given  in  Dr.  Burr's  story  of  large  henhouse  in  Chapter  17. 
Some  of  the  English  farmers  have  a  modification  of  the  colony 
system.  They  mount  small  poultry  houses  on  wheels  and  haul  them 
from  place  to  place  in  the  grain  fields.  The  hens  pick  up  the  scattered 
grain  and  come  back  to  the  wagon  houses  to  lay  and  to  drink.  In 
this  way  the  fields  are  well  gleaned  and  a  good  supply  of  eggs 
obtained.  We  have  heard  of  a  man  who  sailed  down  the  Mississippi 
River  on  a  flatboat  with  an  outfit  of  bees  and  ducks.  The  bees 
hunted  honey  all  the  way  along,  while  the  ducks  made  their  home  on 
the  boat  and  got  nearly  their  entire  living  as  they  went  along.  In 
other  cases  vessels  on  the  ocean  have  carried  hens  in  coops  somewhat 
like  those  built  for  the  Philo  "system,"  and  had  a  supply  of  fresh 
eggs  for  the  entire  voyage.  Another  strange  experience  was  that  of 
a  man  who  carried  an  outfit  of  baby  chicks  to  Florida  in  the  early 
Fall.  His  theory  was  that  these  little  chicks  could  be  forced  ro  as 
to  provide  good-sized  broilers  for  the  great  hotels,  which  do  an 
enormous  business  during  the  Winter.  The  scheme  did  not  work 
properly,  for  during  the  short  Winter  days  the  baby  chicks  did  not 
grow  as  was  expected.  It  would  seem  as  if  Florida  would  furnish 
a  wonderful  opportunity  for  the  business  hen.  The  State  is  thronged 
every  Winter  with  thousands  of  visitors  literally  shaking  money  and 
calling  for  good  things  to  eat.  And  yet  most  of  the  chickens  and 
eggs  served  to  them  come  out  of  cold  storage  houses  at  the  North. 
In  Florida  a  remarkable  remedy  for  hawks  is  advocated.  Chickens 
are  fed  strychnine  in  their  food,  or  the  poison  is  pasted  on  their 
heads.  The  theory  is  that  this  poison  will  not  kill  the  chickens, 
while  it  will  destroy  the  hawks.  The  belief  in  this  remedy  is  quite 
general  throughout  the  State.  The  explanation  is  a  theory  that  both 
the  animals  and  plant  are  natives  of  India,  and  probably  the  animals 
become  wonted  to  it  before  they  were  domesticated.  No  doubt  the 
younger  animals  would  be  more  immune  than  older  ones. 

The  "colony  plan"  has  been  worked  out  with  variations  In  all  the 
corners  of  the  country.  In  New  England  are  several  large  farms 
where  the  hens  practically  wait  on  themselves.  The  feed  is  kept 
in  hoppers — either  in  the  form  of  dry  mash  or  with  the  different 
grains  in  separate  bins.  There  is  usually  a  brook  or  pond  where 
the  hens  range,  and  in  Winter  they  often  depend  on  snow  for  their 
water  supply.  Some  experiments  have  been  tried  in  keeping  hens  in 
small  tents  during  the  Winter — with  grain  fed  in  hoppers  and  snow 
to  "drink."  This  would  not  suit  the  large-combed  breeds  like  the 
Leghorns,  but  the  warmer  clad  breeds  with  small  combs  like  R.  I. 


178  THB  BUSINESS  HEN. 

Reds  or  Brahmas  actually  keep  good  natured  under  such  treatment 
and  lay  eggs.  In  fact  we  think  the  great  supply  of  market  eggs  in 
the  future  will  come  from  these  large  "hen  ranches."  These  will  not 
produce  the  expensive  Winter  eggs,  but  will  send  out  great  quan- 
tities of  Summer  eggs  which  can  be  held  in  cold  storage  or  preserved 
in  water  glass.  Considering  the  low  cost  of  production  when  things 
are  fixed  so  one  man  can  care  for  over  1,000  hens,  there  is  profit  in 
producing  Summer  eggs  on  the  colony  plan.  The  latest  scheme  is 
to  raise  the  chicks  in  scattered  brooder  houses,  separate  out  the 
roosters  early,  and  then  by  changing  the  inside  fixtures  to  use  the 
house  for  wintering  the  pullets. 

The  increased  use  of  the  colony  plan  or  range  system  has 
increased  the  peculiar  disease  known  as  "limberneck,"  which  is 
described  under  the  chapter  on  diseases.  At  one  time  the  greater 
number  of  our  questions  referred  to  colds  or  bowel  troubles — now 
they  deal  with  blindness  or  the  nervous  trouble  called  "limberneck." 
The  chief  cause  is  eating  putrid  meat,  and  this  the  hens  pick  up  on 
the  range.  It  may  be  some  dead  fowl  or  the  carcass  of  some  vermin 
which  they  eat,  but  there  is  evidently  serious  trouble  from  it.  All 
such  carcasses  should  be  buried  at  once.  Do  not  let  them  stay  near 
the  yards  and  houses.  We  put  them  in  deep  holes  by  the  side  of 
fruit  trees  or  vines.  It  is  a  mistake  to  throw  them  on  the  manure 
pile  where  the  hens  and  other  animals  can  get  at  them. 

There  are  still  many  places  where  large  flocks  of  hens  are  kept 
in  one  house.  In  some  cases  such  are  very  successful,  but  the  general 
tendency  is  to  break  up  the  flocks  and  separate  them  into  smaller 
houses.  The  liability  to  diseases  is  greater  when  the  hens  are 
crowded  in  close  quarters,  and  the  sick  hen  must  be  attended  to  at 
once.  She  will  show  her  condition  in  various  ways,  but  when  a  hen 
drops  her  feathers,  puts  her  head  down  and  mopes  about  it  is  time 
to  attend  to  her.  Get  her  away  from  the  rest  at  once.  We  have  a 
small  room  known  as  the  hen  hospital,  where  such  sick  hens  are 
taken.  A  barrel  with  clean  straw  at  the  bottom  is  a  good  hospital 
bed  for  a  hen.  She  must  be  kept  warm  and  dry,  and  in  many  cases 
a  few  days  of  "rest"  with  food  and  some  tonic  like  "Douglas  Mix- 
ture" in  the  water  will  revive  her.  Read  the  chapter  on  "Diseases" 
and  treat  the  hen  as  directed,  but  it  seldom  pays  to  try  to  dose  an 
ordinary  hen.  She  is  hardly  worth  it,  and  nine  times  out  of  10  if 
well  fed  and  free  from  lice  and  permitted  to  keep  dry  she  will  not 
"mope"  or  drop  her  feathers. 

It  cannot  be  repeated  too  often  that  in  all  these  different  methods 
one  of  the  hardest  battles  is  that  against  vermin.  We  are  often 
asked  how  to  destroy  lice  on  the  living  hen.    Mr.  Cosgrove  mentions 


JLL   SORTS   OF   HEN   METHODS.  179 

one  method,  but  it  is  often  necessary  to  sift  the  hen's  feathers  full 
of  powder.  A  good  powder  for  this  purpose  is  described  under 
"Diseases."  We  hold  the  hen  up  by  one  leg  and  sift  the  powder 
among  her  feathers  by  dusting  it  out  of  a  pepper  box  or  from  a  tin 
can  with  holes  punched  through  the  top  with  a  small  nail.  In 
some  cases  the  hens  are  put  into  a  box  hung  like  a  revolving  churn. 
A  handful  of  the  powder  is  put  in  with  them  and  the  box  turned 
over  and  over.  The  hens  flutter  and  are  well  dusted.  Head  lice 
are  harder  to  kill,  and  they  often  torture  the  chicks.  A  mixture  of 
sulphur  and  lard  will  get  them. 

Another  question  often  asked  about  all  these  systems  is  how  to 
prevent  loss  from  chicken  thieves.  This  is  a  serious  problem  in 
many  localities  near  a  large  town  or  close  to  a  well-travelled  road. 
In  some  cases  electric  alarms  are  connected  with  all  doors  and  win- 
dows, but  these  do  not  always  work,  and  a  bright  thief  can  cut  the 
wires.  A  good  dog  is  the  best  protection.  He  should  be  trained  to 
sleep  by  day  and  watch  by  night,  and  given  full  swing  of  the  premises. 
The  doors  of  the  yards  should  be  built  to  swing  on  a  weight  so  the 
dog  can  make  his  way  anywhere.  The  right  kind  of  a  dog  will 
prove  a  genuine  uncle  to  the  business  hen.  He  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  make  friends  with  everyone.  A  dog  with  a  dash  of  bull 
or  bloodhound  blood  will  be  better  than  some  good-natured  breed. 
A  poultry  keeper  in  New  York  had  such  a  dog  with  a  cross  of 
Cuban  bloodhound.  This  terrible  animal  was  respected  by  every 
chicken  thief  within  20  miles.  Another  man  kept  a  large,  good- 
natured  dog  as  chicken  guard.  Thieves  stole  the  dog,  carried  him 
away  and  "got  acquainted  with  him."  When  he  came  home  his 
master  thought  he  would  guard  as  before ;  but  when  the  thieves  came 
back  he  welcomed  them  as  friends. 


CHAPTER  XXL 

ODDS  AND  ENDS. 

In  thickly  settled  regions  there  is  often  great  loss  from  cats. 
Many  so-called  pet  cats  are  little  better  than  wild  animals  and  unless 
they  are  carefully  watched  they  will  do  great  damage  to  the  young 
chickens.  A  good  shotgun  and  a  marksman  will  do  much  to  get 
rid  of  these  marauders,  but  it  will  usually  make  great  trouble  with 
the  neighbors  if  cats  are  killed  in  this  way,  because  most  people 
will  not  admit  that  their  pets  would  ever  kill  a  chicken.  We  have 
found  it  an  excellent  plan  to  cover  the  runs  where  the  chickens  are 
confined  with  twine  netting  such  as  is  used  by  fishermen.  This  is 
cheaper  than  wire  netting,  lighter  and  easier  to  handle  and  can  be 
taken  down  with  ease  when  the  chickens  are  large  enough  and 
packed  away  for  the  next  season's  use.  These  nets  are  also  a  good 
protection  from  hawks  and  a  large  pen  can  be  protected  in  this  v/ay 
at  reasonable  cost. 


The  poultryman  must  understand  that  dampness  will  be  death 
to  his  flock.  He  must  try  above  all  things  to  give  the  hen  a  dry 
place  in  which  she  can  scratch  and  dust,  for  a  damp  cold  house  will 
be  sure  to  bring  on  cases  of  rheumatism  or  colds.  Special  pains 
should  be  taken  to  have  the  floor  of  the  house  well  drained.  In 
case  a  dirt  floor  is  used  ditches  should  be  dug  around  the  house 
and  filled  with  stones.  We  know  of  one  case  where  even  this 
precaution  did  not  prevent  damp  floors  as  there  was  a  heavy  drip 
from  the  eaves  all  along  the  house.  This  was  overcome  by  running 
a  trough  along  the  eaves  so  as  to  carry  the  water  away  to  the  end 
of  tlie  house.  This  made  all  the  difference  between  dampness  and 
dry  floor. 


It  is  now  generally  agreed  by  poultrymen  that  where  fowls  are 
feeding  heavily  on  a  mixture  of  food  an  ample  supply  of  charcoal  is 
necessary.  We  have  tried  the  experiment  again  and  again  of  taking 
the  charcoal  away  from  the  hens  and  we  are  thoroughly  satisfied 
that  it  is  a  necessity  if  we  would  have  best  results,   especially  in 


ODDS  AND  ENDS.  181 

Winter.  When  the  hens  are  housed,  we  would  keep  the  charcoal 
constantly  before  them  where  they  may  help  themselves  to  it  from  a 
hopper  and  they  will  show  that  it  is  a  necessity  by  the  way  they 
clean  it  up. 


The  trouble  from  tgg  eating  often  becomes  a  nuisance,  espe- 
cially where  hens  are  kept  in  close  confinement.  The  poultryman 
sometimes  finds  the  habit  firmly  fixed  before  he  is  aware  of  it.  We 
have  found  that  some  birds  are  confirmed  egg-eaters.  They  are 
smarter  than  the  rest  and  know  hov/  to  break  the  shell  and  get  at 
the  contents.  We  have  seen  them  wait  until  the  tgg  was  laid  and 
then  deliberately  break  the  tgg  and  set  the  example  of  eating  it.  We 
should  never  attempt  to  tarry  with  these  hens,  but  kill  and  eat  them 
at  once.  They  are  a  nuisance  in  the  flock  and  cannot  well  be  cured. 
Various  plans  are  suggested  for  handling  them,  such  as  cutting  off 
the  end  of  the  beak  so  that  they  cannot  strike  the  tgg  without 
hurting  themselves  or  of  blowing  out  the  contents  of  the  Qgg  and 
filling  it  with  a  mixture  of  red  pepper  or  some  bitter  substance. 
The  theory  of  this  is  that  the  hen  will  break  such  an  ^gg,  get  one 
taste  of  it  and  certainly  conclude  that  she  never  did  like  eggs  any 
way.  This  is  a  pretty  theory  but  will  not  work  in  practice.  We 
advise  killing  the  confirmed  egg-eaters,  feeding  an  increased  supply 
of  meat  and  grain  food,  making  the  hens  work  for  their  grain  and 
arranging  the  nest  so  that  the  eggs  must  be  laid  in  the  dark. 


Hens  sometimes  become  cannibals.  Little  chickens  sometimes 
turn  upon  one  member  of  the  flock,  chase  it  about,  peck  it  to  death, 
and  then  deliberately  consume  the  body.  We  have  known  this  to 
happen  in  a  number  of  cases.  Full  grown  birds  will  in  the  same 
way  sometimes  turn  upon  one  of  their  members  and  peck  it  to  death. 
This  trouble  is  generally  started  by  some  bruise  or  injury  on  the 
victim.  The  blood  starts  and  the  other  fowls  peck  at  it  curiously 
and  get  a  taste.  If  they  have  not  been  properly  fed  with  meat 
food  this  taste  of  blood  appears  to  craze  them  and  they  will  chase 
the  afflicted  fowl  about  pecking  at  it,  opening  the  wound  and 
weakening  it  until  it  dies.  The  best  remedy  is  to  feed  meat  and 
take  the  wounded  bird  out  of  the  flock  as  soon  as  found. 


We  are  frequently  asked  what  substance  is  best  for  use  in  the 
dust  boxes.  The  hen  must  have  a  chance  to  dust  herself  through 
the  Winter,  for  this  is  her  method  of  taking  a  bath  and  she  will 
not  get  along  well  without  it.    A  dry  dirt  floor  raised  above  the 


182  THB  BUSINESS  HEN. 

surrounding  ground  so  that  dampness  will  not  rise  to  the  surface 
will  give  the  hen  her  choice,  but  it  often  happens  that  on  concrete 
or  board  floors  dust  boxes  must  be  provided  properly.  Sifted  coal 
ashes  will  do  as  well  as  anything.  The  cinders  should  be  sifted 
out  and  the  dry  fine  powder  used.  Do  not  use  wood  ashes.  They 
contain  lime  and  will  take  the  gloss  off  the  plumage.  A  mixture 
of  coal  ashes  and  floats  or  ground  phosphate  rock  will  make  a 
very  good  dust  for  the  birds.  Road  dust  taken  up  from  the  road 
during  a  drought  will  work  well.  Coal  ashes  are  also  excellent  for 
use  under  the  droppings  board ;  they  do  not  contain  lime  and  will 
not  drive   the  ammonia   away. 


It  frequently  happens  that  all  through  the  Summer  as  the  chicks 
grow  up  a  number  of  them  lose  all  their  feathers  and  go  about 
naked  except  for  a  few  wing  feathers.  We  are  frequently  asked 
the  cause  for  this  trouble.  Most  poultrymen  have  observed  it. 
It  appears  to  be  characteristic  of  some  of  the  heavier  breeds  like  the 
American  breeds  or  the  Asiatics  and  various  reasons  have  been 
given  for  it.  It  is  probably  due  more  than  anything  else  to  a  lack 
of  bodily  vigor  or  ability  to  assimilate  the  food  properly.  Now 
and  then  these  naked  chickens  grow  and  clothe  themselves  properly 
before  the  Winter,  but  as  a  rule  they  suffer  when  cold  weather 
comes  and  are  not  likely  to  thrive.  As  a  matter  of  business  it  will 
hardly  pay  to  keep  them. 


The  hen  keeper  must  not  only  use  his  eyes  but  be  trained  to 
use  his  ears  as  well,  for  he  must  be  quick  to  distinguish  the  char- 
acteristic rattle  or  sound  of  roup.  During  the  season  when  roup  is 
dangerous  it  will  pay  a  hen  man  to  go  slowly  at  night  after  the  hens 
are  on  the  roost  and  listen  carefully  for  this  roupy  cry  or  sound. 
Practice  will  enable  him  to  distinguish  it  and  whenever  it  is  de- 
tected his  best  plan  is  to  take  the  afflicted  bird  out  at  once  for 
treatment.  It  is  folly  to  let  her  remain  in  the  house,  also  with  the 
little  chicks.  The  hen  man  soon  comes  to  know  from  the  sound 
which  the  chickens  make  whether  they  are  happy  or  ailing.  In 
fact  the  chicken  is  like  a  baby  in  making  its  wants  known.  We 
know  of  a  case  where  a  man  who  was  succeeding  well  as  a  hen 
man  found  that  he  was  losing  his  hearing  and  he  quickly  realized 
what  a  loss  this  would  be  to  him  because  he  had  come  to  depend 
upon  his  ears  in  detecting  disease  or  lack  of  food.  His  wife  and 
children  came  to  the  rescue  and  went  with  him  at  night  listening  to 
the  hens  and  chickens  and  acting  as  ears  for  him.  In  this  way  he 
was  able  to  detect  disease  in  spite  of  his  defective  hearing.    This 


ODDS  AND  ENDS.  183 

picking  out  ailing  hens  or  chickens  before  disease  has  a  hard  grip 
on  them  is  one  of  the  tricks  of  the  trade. 


Every  poultryman  should  keep  a  medicine  chest.  While  we  do 
not  approve  of  drugs  or  of  dosing  hens  continually,  there  are  a  few 
remedies  which  a  good  poultryman  will  always  keep  on  hand.  The 
chapter  on  diseases  gives  simple  methods  of  handling  disease, 
but  in  the  medicine  chest  we  would  recommend  the  following.  First 
of  all  a  sharp  little  ax  and  the  inclination  to  use  it  even  upon  your 
best  hens  when  they  become  afflicted  with  an  incurable  disease. 
After  all  the  ax  is  the  best  agent  for  the  help  of  the  flock.  Then 
keep  a  good  quantity  of  vaseline.  It  is  excellent  for  frozen  combs, 
wounds,  and  many  other  things  noted  in  the  disease  chapter.  The 
Douglas  mixture  as  is  noted  in  that  chapter  is  made  by  dissolving 
one-half  pound  sulphate  of  iron  in  a  gallon  of  water  and  adding 
one  ounce  sulphuric  acid.  The  clear  liquid  is  used  in  the  proportion 
of  one  pint  to  a  pail  of  water,  and  is  one  of  the  best  tonics  to  be 
used.  Also  keep  a  package  of  ginger  and  a  package  of  red  pepper. 
In  many  cases  small  quantities  of  this  in  the  mash  will  act  as  a  stim- 
ulant and  help  the  hens.  Charcoal  would  hardly  be  called  a  medicine. 
We  regard  it  more  as  a  food  and  you  will  need  more  than  you 
can  get  in  the  medicine  chest.  Fair  quantities  of  chlorate  of  potash 
and  permanganate  of  potash  are  useful  and  are  mentioned  else- 
where. A  bottle  of  peroxide  of  hydrogen  is  very  useful  to  apply 
to  wounds  and  stop  the  flow  of  blood.  There  should  also  be  a 
quantity  of  tincture  of  iron.  Kerosene  will  of  course  be  on  hand 
for  the  brooders  and  incubators  and  a  quantity  of  carbolic  acid 
and  gasoline  with  plaster  of  paris  to  be  used  in  making  lice  pow- 
der,  which   is   described   elsewhere. 


The  mieat  supply  for  the  poultry  flock  often  presents  something 
of  a  problem.  Beef  scraps  are  excellent,  but  they  are  high  priced 
and  they  will  not  keep  properly  for  a  long  time.  Many  farmers  can 
obtain  through  the  Winter  various  carcasses  of  horses,  cows  or 
similar  animals  and  they  are  able  to  grind  or  chop  them  up  with 
great  benefit  to  the  hen.  During  Winter  when  the  weather  is  cold 
the  disposition  of  these  carcasses  is  not  difficult.  We  have  known 
cases  where  large  chunks  of  the  meat  were  hung  up  attached  to  a 
string  in  the  henhouse  so  that  the  hens  were  obliged  to  jump  up  and 
peck  at  the  meat,  after  the  plan  in  which  cabbage  is  usually  fed. 
This  gave  the  hen  exercise  and  it  was  surprising  to  see  how  they 
polished  ofif  the  bones.  In  many  cases  the  carcasses  are  chopped  up 
and  packed  away  in  ice  or  snow,  using  barrels  or  boxes  for  the 


184  >  THH  BUSINESS  HBN. 

package.  In  this  frozen  condition  they  will  keep  until  late  Spring 
and  are  fed  as  above  described,  run  through  a  bone  cutter  or 
cooked  in  kettles.  We  have  heard  of  cases  where  such  meat  kept 
reasonably  well  even  in  warm  weather  by  packing  it  as  soon  as  the 
carcasses  were  cut  up  in  layers  of  ground  limestone.  We  do  not 
mean  the  burned  lime,  but  the  limestone  crushed  without  the  burn- 
ing. With  the  meat  entirely  surrounded  with  this  limestone  it 
remains  sweet  for  a  long  time.  Charcoal  will  keep  the  meat  for 
a  reasonable  time,  but  it  makes  it  dirty  and  dries  it  out  consider- 
ably. Where  there  is  a  cooker  on  the  place,  the  meat  can  be  thor- 
oughly boiled  and  jammed  down  into  airtight  packages  of  stone 
or  wood  packed  in  solidly.  It  is  done  in  much  the  same  way  that 
sausages  are  kept  in  the  country.  Such  meat  can  be  kept  for 
several  weeks  at  least.  Where  one  is  keeping  a  large  flock  the  plan 
of  utilizing  such  carcasses  in  Winter  is  a  good  one  whenever  the 
animals  are  not  diseased  but  are  killed,  as  many  are,  when  they  are 
too  old  for  work  or  when  they  meet  with  some  accident.  Some 
years  ago  we  gave  an  old  mare  to  a  poultryman  who  was  to  kill 
her  humanely  and  feed  the  meat  to  his  hens.  A  month  later  we 
found  that  the  horse  was  still  alive.  She  had  been  put  in  one  end 
of  a  house  and  acted  as  a  stove,  her  bodily  heat  keeping  up  the 
temperature.  As  the  hen  man  put  it,  "A  hen  would  get  cold  feet, 
fly  on  to  old  Katie's  back,  warm  her  feet  and  then  go  and  lay 
another  Q-gg'' 


One  of  the  most  annoying  things  in  poultry  keeping  is  to  have 
a  supply  of  rats  with  access  to  the  feed  house.  It  is  often  much 
cheaper  to  buy  a  large  supply  of  grain  in  the  Fall,  keep  it  and 
feed  it  out  through  the  Winter,  but  whenever  this  is  done  great 
care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  feed  dry  and  away  from  the  rats. 
It  is  often  possible  to  save  from  10  to  20  cents  per  hundred  in 
buying  at  the  right  time.  If,  however,  the  feed  house  is  not  rat 
proof  you  will  more  than  lose  the  money  saved  on  the  feed.  All 
feed  houses  of  this  kind  should  be  raised  above  the  ground  from 
18  inches  to  two  feet  at  least  and  are  better  when  perched  upon 
cement  posts.  Let  the  timber  be  put  directly  upon  these  posts, 
and,  in  order  to  make  doubly  sure  that  the  rats  shall  not  enter,  an 
inverted  tin  pan  may  be  placed  at  the  top  of  the  posts.  Then 
proceed  to  build  in  the  ordinary  way,  making  the  steps  of  the  door 
movable,  and  never  leave  them  against  the  building,  except  when 
some  one  is  in  the  house.  Never  under  any  circumstances  permit 
piles  of  rubbish  to  be  placed  anywhere  near  the  building.  Other- 
wise the   rats  will  run  to  the  top  of  these  piles  and  jump  from 


ODDS  AND  BNDS.  185 

them  into  the  house.  They  can  only  enter  by  crawling  up  the 
sides  of  the  posts,  getting  in  through  the  steps  or  jumping  from  a  pile 
of  rubbish.  As  we  have  stated  they  cannot  climb  the  cement  posts, 
and  if  they  are  of  wood  the  inverted  pans  will  turn  them  back. 
If  you  forget  and  leave  the  movable  steps  in  place  over  night  the 
chances  are  that  your  house  will  be  over-run  by  rats  and  that  you 
will  lose  a  fair  share  of  your  grain. 


A  sheep  kept  in  a  henhouse  has  been  found  useful  in  keeping 
down  the  supply  of  vermin.  It  is  stated  that  the  hens  and  roosts  were 
freer  from  lice  when  the  sheep  was  on  hand.  The  wool  of  the 
sheep  is  oily  and  oil  is  death  to  lice.  There  seems  to  be  no  better 
explanation  of  it. 


Every  poultry  keeper  should  know  how  to  make  the  limiC- 
sulphur  wash.  It  is, the  great  medicine  for  trees  and  will  kill  all 
the  lice  it  can  reach.  Take  40  pounds  of  stone  lime,  20  pounds  of 
sulphur  and  five  pounds  caustic  soda  for  60  gallons  of  water,  or 
smaller  proportions  for  less  water.  Slake  the  lime  by  pouring 
water  over  it.  Make  a  thin  paste  of  the  sulphur  and  pour  it  in 
while  the  lime  is  slaking.  Keep  stirring.  Dissolve  the  caustic  soda 
in  water,  pour  into  the  lime  water  and  keep  stirring.  It  will  make 
a  reddish  brown  liquid  which  may  burn  the  fingers  and  eyes — but 
it  will  kill  the  lice. 


People  who  live  in  town  often  keep  a  small  flock  of  hens  and 
some  of  them  make  great  records.  We  find  the  larger  breeds  better 
for  this  back-yard  work  and  from  choice  would  take  Light  Brahmas. 
Good  strains  of  this  breed  will  lay  well  if  properly  handled,  and  they 
stand  confinement  well.  The  hens  are  good  sitters  and  the  chicks 
grow  rapidly  into  a  large  carcass.  R.  I.  Reds,  Wyandottes  and 
Plymouth  Rocks  are  all  good  for  the  back  yard.  We  would  rather 
give  such  active  breeds  as  Leghorns  a  chance  for  more  range  and  a 
larger  yard.  Some  people  keep  a  dozen  hens  in  a  piano  box  with 
great  success,  but  it  is  not  safe  to  figure  that  because  a  dozen  hens 
pay  a  large  profit  each  2,000  will  do  equally  well.  Mr.  S.  D.  Hainley, 
of  Pennsylvania,  wrote  us  that  he  made  his  hens  pay  a  profit  of  $4.68 
each.  When  asked  for  the  figures  he  gives  them.  They  are  correct, 
but  you  must  remember  that  Mr.  Hainley  is  one  of  the  men  who  are 
"half  hen."  His  estimate  of  the  value  of  good  hen  manure  is  right, 
if  you  have  a  good  garden  of  vegetables  or  fruit. 

"You  ask  me  how  I  made  $4.68  a  year  per  hen  and  what  kind 
they  were?     About  the  best  way  I  can  explain  that  is  to  give  you 


186  THE  BUSINESS  HEN. 

the  account  for  that  year,  which  was  1905,  when  I  had  12  hens.  In 
January  they  laid  194  eggs  which  sold  for  $5.66.  February  they  only 
laid  126,  for  it  was  a  very  cold,  stormy  month  all  through.  Cold, 
stormy  weather  affects  all  live  stock  (human  included).  It  seems 
more  severe  on  fowls  for  they  do  not  have  the  body  to  hold  the  ani- 
mal heat  to  keep  them  warm.  If  we  do  not  protect  them  they  will 
fall  off  in  the  egg  production,  and  as  I  have  not  the  time  nor  inclina- 
tion to  do  this,  my  chickens  go  without  it.  But  these  126  eggs  sold 
for  $3.67.  In  March  they  hid  267,  sold  for  $6.70;  April,  188,  sold 
for  $3.92 ;  May,  150,  sold  for  $2.75 ;  June,  98,  sold  for  $1.64 ;  July,  126, 
sold  for  $2.10;  August,  54,  sold  for  90  cents;  September,  30,  sold  for 
62  cents;  October,  31,  sold  for  64  cents;  November,  42,  sold  for 
$1.05;  December,  72,  sold  for  $1.80.  About  the  first  of  July  I  sold 
live  hens  so  that  left  m.e  seven  to  lay  the  rest  of  the  year.  I  set  76 
eggs  and  hatched  out  55,  You  may  think  that  was  poor  hatching, 
and  it  certainly  was,  for  I  had  six  hens  sitting  on  these  eggs  and 
there  was  one  old  thing  that  went  from  one  nest  to  another  and 
would  fight  the  other  hens  off  and  break  the  eggs.  From  these  55 
chicks  I  raised  48.  A  rat  took  the  other  seven  when  they  were  three 
weeks  old.  The  way  I  feed  is  to  have  a  deep  litter  in  which  I 
scatter  all  the  grain  they  get,  which  is  corn,  oats,  buckwheat,  and  at 
the  present  time  I  have  wheat  screenings.  This  is  fed  at  night,  and 
as  soon  as  they  get  off  the  roost  they  go  to  work.  Whatever  they 
get  they  have  to  work  for,  for  I  have  to  work  for  everything  I  get 
and  I  am  going  to  apply  that  rule  to  everything  on  the  place,  for  I 
believe  that  work  is  the  best  cure  for  most  ailments.  I  have  not 
had  a  sick  chicken  on  the  place  for  five  years,  for  they  have  to 
hustle  for  a  living  and  that  gives  them  a  good  hardy  constitution. 
The  chicks  when  hatched  are  rugged  and  they  start  in  to  scratch  for 
a  living,  for  they  get  no  soft  feed,  no  mashes  for  me.  The  chicks 
have  a  grist  mill  of  their  own  and  nature  does  not  supply  feed  of 
this  kind.  I  know  it  will  make  those  fowls  grow  faster  that  are 
bred  to  it,  but  I  believe  it  weakens  the  digestion  and  they  grow  soft 
and  weak  so  that  they  cannot  put  up  a  successful  struggle  against 
the  many  diseases  that  attack  them.  I  like  to  give  them  all  the 
green  food  I  can,  such  as  small  potatoes  (raw),  beets,  cabbage  and 
anything  bulky  and  green  that  they  will  eat.  I  also  have  a  green 
bone  cutter  and  they  get  bone  three  times  a  week  in  Summer  or  when 
I  can  get  it  fresh,  and  in  the  Winter  it  is  before  them  about  all  the 
time.  These  48  chicks  with  what  stock  I  sold  in  Fall  brought  me 
$31.43;  eggs,  $33.45;  total,  $64.93.  Eggs  set  were  worth  $1.58;  feed, 
$10.76.  Dr.  Burr  says  that  the  droppings  are  worth  30  cents  a  head 
per  year,  $3.60;  that  would  §iive  me  a  grand  total  of  $68.53;  less 


ODDS  AND  BNDS.  187 

eggs  and  feed,  $56.19,  leaves  an  average  of  $4.68J4  a  year.  This  is 
an  average  of  138  eggs  per  year,  A  dozen  of  these  eggs  weighed 
29  ounces.  These  chickens  are  Barred  and  White  P.  Rocks.  All 
stock  and  eggs  are  sold  at  market  price.  I  never  received  over  35 
cents  for  a  dozen  of  eggs  and  not  over  15  cents  a  pound  for  stock. 
You  may  think  that  was  an  off  year,  but  in  1907  a  larger  flock  paid 
me  a  net  profit  of  $4.77^  each.  This  year  I  cannot  count  them 
before  they  are  hatched,  but  I  am  going  to  try  to  make  them  pay 
me  $5  apiece.  But  when  I  look  at  the  price  of  feed,  corn  $1.10,  oats 
70  cents,  wheat  screenings  $1.15  per  bushel,  it  makes  me  smile  but 
it  will  show  what  is  in  me." 


To  show  how  hens  may  sometimes  be  left  to  take  care  of  them- 
selves, we  give  the  following  httle  statement  from  Massachusetts. 
We  have  had  many  statements  from  clerks  and  mechanics  who 
worked  long  hours  and  in  Winter  could  only  look  after  the  hens  at 
night  and  morning.  Yet  by  arranging  their  work  systematically 
they  made  the  hens  lay  and  developed  a  fine  flock.  In  several  such 
cases  these  men  were  finally  able  to  give  up  their  town  work  and  make 
a  good  living  from  the  flock  which  they  developed  from  a  few  hens. 

"I  began  1907  with  three  mongrel  old  hens  and  16  purebred  R.  I. 
Red  pullets.  I  could  give  the  fowls  no  attention  except  at  the  two 
ends  of  the  day  and  on  Sundays  and  holidays,  for  I  worked  all  day 
in  the  city,  nine  miles  away;  so  they  got  no  care  by  daylight  during 
the  short  Winter  days.  Before  leaving  for  work  each  morning  in 
Winter  there  was  the  following  hen  work  to  see  to :  Open  up  the 
henhouse,  raise  the  window  curtain  and  adjust  the  ventilator,  fork 
over  the  scratching  litter,  adding  to  it  a  little  hay  or  dry  leaves, 
together  with  such  grain  as  would  tempt  the  hens  to  scratch,  replen- 
ish the  feed  hopper,  give  the  hens  some  green  food  such  as  a  turnip, 
beet  or  cabbage  to  peck  at,  fill  the  drinking  pail  with  warm  water, 
and  leave  hot  mash  in  the  feed  pan.  This  mash  consisted  of  table 
scraps  and  meal,  shorts,  middlings  and  ground  oats,  with  beef  scraps 
or  animal  meal  added,  and  the  whole  seasoned  with  a  little  salt. 
Occasionally  charcoal  was  added.  Many  of  the  hens  learned  to 
come  down  from  the  roost  and  eat  by  lantern  light;  the  others  got 
their  mash  cold.  On  the  south  side  of  the  henhouse  was  a  glass- 
covered  run  where  the  hens  sunned  themselves.  The  run  was 
really  an  A-shaped  coop  made  of  old  windows  with  the  broken  panes 
replaced  by  tarred  paper  or  shingles.  During  the  Summer  the  hens 
had  the  run  of  an  inclosure  which  included  a  gravel  bank  and  some 
brushy  hillside,  and  sometimes  they  were  let  out  to  forage  in  the 
dooryard. 


188  THB  BUSINESS  HBN. 

"I  set  the  first  hen  on  10  R.  I.  Red  eggs,  January  22,  in  the  cold 
loft  of  the  barn,  but  the  nest-box  was  packed  all  around  with  excelsior. 
Each  evening  I  took  the  hen  off  the  nest  and  waited  with  the  lantern 
while  she  took  food  and  water.  On  February  13  all  10  eggs  had 
hatched,  but  the  temperature  that  day  was  five  below  zero  and  one 
of  the  chicks  got  chilled  and  died.  The  remaining  nine  survived  and 
proved  to  be  seven  pullets  and  two  cockerels.  Though  the  loft  floor 
was  strewn  with  gravel  and  hay,  a  place  where  water  froze  in  a  few 
minutes  was  not  suitable  for  young  chicks  or  for  the  old  hen  either, 
so  I  moved  them  outdoors  into  sheltered  coop  packed  inside  with 
fine  ashes  and  hay  and  banked  up  outside  with  coal  ashes  and  -snow. 
The  top  of  the  coop  was  flat  and  was  made  of  an  old  window  hinged 
to  swing  upward.  Here  the  chicks  got  all  the  sun  to  be  had,  and 
when  they  had  outgrown  this  coop  they  were  put  into  another  and 
larger  one,  made  of  old  windows  partly  covered  with  bagging  to 
give  shade.  They  were  fed  commercial  chick  feeds,  with  other 
ingredients  added,  such  as  beef  scraps,  millet,  rape  seed,  hemp  seed, 
or  chopped  cabbage  or  onion.  They  seemed  to  grow  visibly  between 
morning  and  night.  The  first  cockerel  crowed  at  10  weeks  of  age. 
The  first  pullet  laid  May  31  at  three  months  19  days ;  the  second  laid 
June  5  at  three  months  24  days,  and  on  June  8  three  pullets  laid.  In 
June  this  flock  of  seven  February-hatched  pullets  laid  42  eggs,  and 
in  July  69  eggs.  At  the  close  of  the  year  my  19  hens  had  paid  a 
profit  of  $1.35  per  hen."  o,  j.  f. 


During  the  Summer  we  receive  many  questions  about  preserv- 
ing eggs.  The  hen  does  not  distribute  her  favors  evenly  through- 
out the  year.  She  lays  well  from  April  to  August  and  then  takes 
a  vacation.  Many  a  farm  flock  will  not  give  an  egg  for  four 
months.  The  theory  of  preserving  is  to  take  a  one-cent  Qgg  and 
hold  it  so  that  it  may  be  used  when  eggs  are  worth  four  cents  or 
more.  Formerly  eggs  were  packed  in  salt  or  in  thick  lime  water 
or  wash.  This  kept  them  after  a  fashion  but  the  salt  eggs  were 
likely  to  taste,  while  the  limed  eggs  had  a  brittle  shell,  which  pre- 
vented their  use  for  some  purposes.  Commercial  eggs  are  now 
kept  in  cold  storage,  such  handling  having  become  a  great  business. 
It  is  out  of  the  question  for  a  farmer  to  put  up  cold  storage  but 
by  using  water  glass  he  can  hold  the  cheap  eggs  of  May  and  June 
until  needed  in  Winter, 

Water  glass,  or  silicate  of  soda,  can  be  bought  at  most  drug 
stores  or  from  large  manufacturers.  It  is  a  thick  creamy  liquid 
which  dissolves  in  water.  The  operation  of  preserving  is  simple. 
Nine  parts  of  water  are  put  in  a  wood  or  stone  vessel  and  one  part 


ODDS  AND  ENDS.  189 

of  the  water  glass  poured  in.  It  is  better  to  boil  the  water  thor- 
oughly before  using,  letting  it  cool  of  course  before  mixing.  Stir  up 
the  solution  thoroughly  and  cover  with  a  lid  which  prevents  evap- 
oration and  keeps  out  the  dust.  Put  the  package  in  a  cold 
cellar  until  it  is  wanted  for  use.  Perfectly  fresh  eggs  kept  in  this 
solution  will  be  good  at  the  end  of  a  year,  but  they  must  be  sound 
and  fresh  when  put  into  the  solution.  You  cannot  expect  it  to 
restore  stale  or  spoiled  specimens.  One  pound  of  water  glass  prop- 
erly diluted  with  nine  pounds  of  water  will  cover  about  14  dozen 
eggs.  Put  the  eggs  into  the  liquid  gently  so  they  will  not  crack 
and  then  put  on  a  wooden  cover  so  as  to  keep  them  in  the  solution. 
Dirty  eggs  should  be  wiped  clean  before  putting  in.  We  have  used 
the  same  solution  two  years  in  succession,  but  it  would  be  better  to 
start  each  year  with  a  fresh  supply,  as  the  cost  is  not  great.  The 
only  change  that  you  will  note  in  such  eggs  is  that  the  white  or 
albumen  will  appear  more  watery  than  it  is  in  perfectly  fresh  eggs, 
otherwise  they  resemble  new-laid  eggs  in  appearance  after  being 
thoroughly  rinsed  and  dried  off.  They  can  be  used  for  all  house- 
hold purposes  except  it  may  be  boiling  in  the  shell.  When  boiled 
they  crack  and  they  are  likely  to  split  if  heated  too  suddenly  and 
again  when  boiled  the  interior  does  not  look  as  inviting  when 
opened.  For  most  cooking  purposes,  however,  they  are  quite  equal 
to  the  fresh  eggs  and  we  have  found  that  in  cold  weather  these 
eggs  will  keep  well  for  two  weeks  after  coming  out  of  the  solution. 
We  must  understand,  however,  just  what  the  limitations  of  this 
process  are.  These  eggs  are  not  fresh  and  should  never  be  offered 
for  sale  as  such.  Some  people  have  endeavord  to  do  this  by  putting 
up  barrels  of  them  when  eggs  were  cheap  and  tried  to  sell  them 
through  the  Winter  as  fresh  eggs.  In  every  case  they  came  to 
grief  and  practically  ruined  their  trade  in  actual  fresh  eggs,  as  their 
customers  had  no  confidence  in  them  afterward.  If  commercial  eggs 
are  to  be  kept  they  would  much  better  be  put  in  cold  storage. 
The  water  glass  method  is  an  excellent  one  for  household  purposes 
and  where  but  a  comparatively  few  dozen  will  be  needed.  With  a 
stock  of  fresh  eggs  preserved  in  April  and  May  there  will  be  a 
supply  for  family  use  all  through  the  Fall  and  Winter,  but  it  must 
be  repeated  over  and  over  that  there  is  no  use  putting  a  stale  tgg 
into  water  glass.  If  you  attempt  this  method  make  special  prepara- 
tions to  have  the  eggs  fresh.  Some  people  do  not  gather  the  eggs 
for  several  days  and  in  such  cases  the  egg  may  remain  on  the  nest 
under  a  sitting  hen  for  two  days  or  more.  In  that  case  such  an 
tgg  is  about  15  per  cent  chicken  and  will  prove  a  nuisance  when 
put  into  water  glass.    When  eggs  come  to  the  city  for  sale  they  are 


190  THE  BUSINESS  HBN. 

promptly  candled,  that  is,  passed  before  a  powerful  light  so  that  the 
candler  can  quickly  tell  their  condition.  This  is  a  business  by  itself 
and  it  would  be  impossible  to  deceive  an  expert,  but  some  farmers 
do  not  realize  just  what  a  stale  tgg  is.  We  know  of  one  case 
where  a  man  sent  a  quantity  of  eggs  from  the  country  guaranteeing 
that  they  had  all  been  candled  and  were  fresh.  The  candler  in  the 
city  found  a  large  proportion  of  them  stale  and  so  notified  the 
shipper.  He  still  insisted  that  they  had  been  candled,  but  when 
asked  how  he  candled  them  he  said  he  stood  inside  of  a  barn  and 
held  the  eggs  up  to  a  knot  hole  and  looked  through  them.  That 
might  suit  him  but  not  the  buyer.  The  best  eggs  for  preserving 
are  those  from  pens  where  no  male  birds  are  kept. 

The  "rot"  of  the  Qgg  is  due  to  bacteria,  of  which  there  are 
several  kinds.  This  has  been  proved  by  cultivating  these  bacteria 
and  putting  them  into  perfectly  fresh  eggs.  The  rot  developed  rap- 
idly just  as  cream  will  ripen  when  a  "starter"  is  put  into  it.  Some 
of  these  bacteria  are  in  the  hen  and  enter  the  &gg  before  it  leaves 
her.  Many  eggs  are  infected  while  in  the  nest  before  they  are 
taken  up.  In  Connecticut  nine  different  kinds  of  bacteria  were  taken 
from  one  nest.  This  ought  to  show  anyone  the  folly  of  letting  the 
nests  become  as  filthy  as  some  of  them  are.  It  has  been  found  that 
eggs  contain  most  of  these  rot  bacteria  in  late  Summer.  They  are 
most  free  from  them  in  April  and  May  and  that  is  the  best  season 
for  taking  eggs  for  preserving. 


You  will  notice  that  the  American  and  Asiatic  breeds  lay  brown 
eggs  varying  from  light  to  very  dark.  These  breeds  are  well 
feathered  and  are  bred  with  very  small  combs  so  they  will  stand  the 
cold.  The  hens  which  lay  white  eggs  are  of  a  different  type,  ner- 
vous, with  thin  feathering  and  large  combs,  and  this  large  comb 
is  the  special  target  for  Jack  Frost.  The  white  egg  is  desirable 
in  most  market  but  many  poultrymen  want  a  more  rough  and 
ready  breed  than  the  Leghorn.  They  are  after  the  "hen  in  fur," 
that  is,  one  which  can  stand  frost  and  still  lay  a  white  egg.  Mr. 
Cosgrove  says  in  his  chapter  that  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Sta- 
tion is  trying  to  breed  a  Wyandotte  strain  of  white  egg  layers.  The 
hen  they  are  working  on  is  not  a  pure  Wyandotte  but  a  mixture 
of  breeds.  You  will  see  that  a  Wyandotte,  a  "Rock"  or  a  "Red" 
can  squat  down  on  the  nest  and  in  this  way  keep  her  feet  warm. 
Her  comb  is  small  and  she  can  put  her  head  under  her  wing. 
Thus  she  is  fully  protected  by  her  warm  feathers.  A  Leghorn 
under  the  same  conditions  could  not  put  her  big  comb  in  her 
"pocket"  and  on  a  cold  night  in  a  colony  house  it  would  be  frosted. 


ODDS  AND  UNDS,  191 

Thus  what  is  wanted  is  the  Leghorn's  ability  to  lay  white  eggs  with 
the  "fur"  of  the  warmer  breeds.  It  seems  strange  that  in  all  the 
attempts  at  breed  making  this  idea  has  not  been  worked  out  before. 
It  is  practical  and  the  combination  has  already  been  made  in 
Connecticut.  Of  course,  in  "making"  such  a  bird,  blood  of  the  Leg- 
horn will  be  used  to  obtain  the  large  white  &^g.  Naturally  the 
breeders  who  are  now  breeding  Leghorns  with  success  will  say  that 
this  new  breed  is  not  needed.  In  their  warm  and  comfortable  houses 
there  is  little  danger  from  frosted  combs.  They  must  remember, 
however,  that  new  conditions  have  made  new  methods  necessary. 
It  has  been  frequently  pointed  out  that  the  use  of  a  dry  mash  in 
feeding  has  more  than  doubled  the  size  of  the  flock  which  one  man 
can  control,  while  thick  feathering  and  small  comb  will  without 
doubt  cheapen  the  cost  of  housing  hens  in  a  cold  country.  The 
"hen  in  fur"  therefore  has  her  place  and  it  is  worth  while  to  try  to 
develop  her,  though,  as  a  rule,  cross-breeding  is  to  be  avoided.  In 
fact  we  may  end  this  book,  as  we  began  it,  by  saying  that  there  are 
few,  if  any,  cast  iron  rules  in  poultry  keeping.  The  hen  man  must  fol- 
low certain  general  principles,  yet  he  must  win  success  if  at  all  by 
learning  from  the  hen  how  to  adapt  his  particular  circumstances  and 
conditions  to  her  needs  or  requirements. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Bantams     168 

Breeds,    Crossing    102 

Breeding,    Limitations    of 92 

Brooder    House,    Colony 40 

House,     Gkisoline-Heated .  .  42 

House,  Large   41 

Small    40 

Chick  Brooder,   Homemade 48 

Brooding     44,  113 

Embryo,   Developing 25 

Outfit,     Convenient 4< 

Chicks,    Baby,    Selling 40 

Feeding     112 

In  Brooder,  Trouble  -with.  4b 

Chicken   Thieves 179 

Chickens,    Naked 1^2 

Cockerels,    Fattening o2 

Combs,    Frosted    ^     '5 

Cosgrove,  Geo.  A.,  Experience  of  108 

Diarrhoea    J^ 

White    80 

Diseases,     Communicable tl 

Ducks,   Keeping 163 

Dust  Boxes,   Material  for 181 

Egg  Constituents  of 16 

Distinguishing   Sex   in....  2( 

Eating    Habit 73,  181 

Fertility    22 

How   Made 14 

Life  Germ  in 1 ' 

Quality,    Improving 98 

Shell,    When    Made 18 

Time  Required  to  Make ...  21 

Tvpe   Fixed 23 

With    Two    Yolks 74 

Within  an  Egg 74 

Eggs,     Abnormal 19 

Bloody     7o 

Breeding    for y-:) 

For    Fancy    Trade 120 

For  Hatching.  Cooling.  ...  35 

For   Hatching,   Keeping ...  23 

For  Hatching,   Shipping...  25 

Marketing     116 

Natural  Incubation  of....  SS 

Package     for 118 

Preserving     188 

Rot  in   189 

Selecting  for    Hatching...  24 

Shape,   Size  and  Color  of.  18 

Testing     ^6 

Turning     34 

Feather     Pulling 75 

Feed    Hopper,    Hunter 51 

Hopper,    Minnesota o2 

Trough,    Burr 160 

Feeds,   Analysis    of.... 85 

Gapes,    Treatment   for 75 

Gasoline  Heater,  Details  of...  4o 

Grits,   Need  of 88 

Guinea    Fowls i6  T 

Hen,  Egg  Organs  of 1;^ 

Feeding    82 

In    Fur    190 

Law   of    140 

Manure,    Handling lo8 

Young,  Caring  for oO 

Hens    and    Fruit 174 

Bleeding  from   Comb 69 

Blind     69 

Cannibal  181 


PAGE 

Egg-Eating   18 

How  Mechanic  Kept 187 

In  Back  Yard 185 

Kept  by  Woman 126 

Selecting    173 

\Vith  Bumble  Foot 69 

Henhouse,    Business 50 

Damp     180 

Interior    61 

Straw    175 

Incubator    Cellars 29 

Disinfecting    30 

Lamp,  Regulating 31 

Regulating    30 

Thermometer    31 

Temperature   for 32 

Ventilating    33 

Kaffir  Corn  for  Poultry 8? 

Lice     76,  112 

Limber    Neck 77 

Lime    Sulphur   for   Vermin ....  185 

Longevity,   Breeding  for 97 

Mash,  Dry,  How  Made  and  Fed  89 

Meat,  Breeding  for 99 

Foods   for   Hens 88,  183 

Milk   for  Poultry 88 

Mites    78 

Nest,    Trap     151 

Oats,    Sprouted    87 

Pigeons    and    Squabs 16B 

Poultry,   Breeds   of 9 

Devices,    Homemade 143 

Diseases     68 

Dry    Picking 122 

Fattening    Coop 52 

Fitting   for  Exhibition....  x41 

Grading    up 103,  123 

House,    Burr     155 

House,  Colony    65 

House,   Gallup    54 

House,   Large    66 

House,   Sod    67 

Houses,    Dampness   in...,  64 

Houses,     Remodeling 03 

In-Breeding    lOo 

In   Large   Flocks 154 

Killing    121 

Line  Breeding    107 

Medicine   Chest    183 

Packing     123 

Purebred     100 

Scalding    122 

Selling    Notes    124 

Svstems     132 

With   Chicken   Pox 70 

With   Colds    71 

V\'ith    Crop    Compaction. .  .  71 

With   Farm   Crops 136 

Yard,    Movable 152 

Rats,   Damage  from 184 

Roasters,   Raising    169 

Roosters,  Care  of 105 

Getting   Rid   of 174 

Number    Required 104 

Roup,    Treatment    for 78,  182 

Sheep    in    Henhouse 185 

Turkeys,    Blackhead   in 68 

Keeping     163 

Vent  Gleet   79 

Vertigo,  Cause  of 80 

Worms  in  Poultry SI 


TiTBHAJRY  of  ika 

iM!»ssacliias«tto 

JAN  12 1911 

A-gricTxltTaral 
College 


